
PRESENTEn BY 



The 

Fifteenth Yearbook 



OF THE 



NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY 
OF EDUCATION 



PART III 
THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 



A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS., IN PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED 
ON THE RECOMMENDATION OF WILLIAM H. BURNHAM 



THE PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
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The 

Fifteenth Yearbook 



OF THE 



NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY 
OF EDUCATION 



Part III 
The Junior High School 



BY 

Aubrey Augustus Douglass 

Clark Uni'-versity 



Edited by Guy Montrose Whipple, Secretary 



A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS., IN PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED 
ON THE RECOMMENDATION OF WILLIAM H. BURNHAM 



THE PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS 

1916 



■^ 1 



V 



<5^ 



v^^ 



Copyright 1917 By 

Guy Montrose Whipple 

secretary of the society 



All Rig-hts Reserved 



Published January, 1917 



Composed and Printed by 

The Public School Pablishing Company 

Bloomington, Illinois 



OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY 
OF EDUCATION 



President 



Charles E. Chadsey 
Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan 

Vice-President 

James H. Van Sickle 

Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Massachusetts 

Secretary-Treasurer 

Guy M. Whipple 

University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 

Executive Committee 

(the year indicates date of expiration of term) 

George D. Strayer (1917) 
Columbia University, New York City 

Harry B. Wilson (1918) 
Superintendent of Schools, Topeka, Kansas 

DwiGHT B. Waldo (1919) 
State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michigan 

H. Lester Smith (1920) 
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 

Board of Trustees 

Lotus D. Coffman (1917) 
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 

S. Chester Parker (1918) 
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 

EDVi^ARD C. Elliott (1919) 
University of Montana, Helena, Montana 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Editor's Preface 7 

Introduction 8 

Chapter I. Features of Readjustment 9 

Historical Survey of the Junior High School 9 

Definition of the Junior High School 14 

Arguments for the Junior High School 17 

. Arguments against the Junior High School 20 

Cost of the Junior High School 21 

Economy of Time and the Junior High School 22 

Present Extent of the Movement 26 

Chapter II. Physiological and Psychological Character- 
istics OF Adolescence 28 

Definitions 28 

The General Phenomena of Adolescence 29 

Physical Aspects of Adolescence 32 

1 Psychical Aspects of Adolescence 34 

/ Time of Onset of Puberty 36 

Criteria for Judging Onset of Puberty 38 

School Work and Pubescence 39 

Segregation of the Sexes in the School 44 

Admission to the Junior High School 46 

Present Requirements of Admission 48 

Summary 49 

Chapter III. The Curriculum 51 

Junior-High-School General Problems 51 

Principles Underlying Reorganization of the Several Sub- 
jects 62 

English 62 

Social Subjects 63 

Mathematics 65 

- Science 67 

Foreign Language 69, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS— Cowf. 

PAGE 

Hygiene 71 

Commercial Subjects 72 

Home Economics 73 

Industrial Arts 74 

Existing Junior-High-School Curricula 77 

Types of Curricula 83 

Chapter IV. Problems of Administration and Supervision 

IN the Junior High School 88 

The Grouping of Grades 88 

The 'Regional' School 91 

Housing 92 

Collegiate Institutions and the Junior High School 93 

Parents, Teachers, and Pupils 94 

The Junior College 94 

The Securing of Teachers 96 

Supervised Study 97 

The Junior High School and the Elimination of Pupils. . .101 
The Junior High School and the Retardation of Pupils .... 110 
Appendix 

Section 1. Junior-High-School Teachers 114 

Section 2. Typical Junior-High-School Curricula 120 

Section 3. Detailed Data from 100 American Cities 131 

Section 4. Statistics of Enrolment in Junior High 

Schools 137 

Section 5. Extent of the Junior-High-School Movement 

in the Several States 139 

Bibliography 146 

General 146 

Historical 148 

Physiological Age 149 

Dealing Particularly Avith the Junior High School 151 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 



The growth of the Society's membership, together with the 
increase in the sales of its publications, has made it possible this 
year to expend a larger sum than usual in the preparation and 
publication of the Yearbook. For the first time in the history of 
the Society we are issuing the Yearbook in three parts. 

It has always been the policy of the Society to devote its 
publications to the discussion of topics of the hour in the field of 
education. The junior high school is clearly one of the most timely 
topics at the present moment. Mr. Douglass, the author of this 
part of the Fifteenth Yearbook, has spent many months in col- 
lecting information upon his topic. In June, 1915, he printed 
in the Pedagogical Seminary a preliminary statement of his 
findings. Since that time he has secured much more extended 
information concerning the actual development of the movement 
in school systems, while the list of published articles dealing with 
the movement has been surprisingly lengthened. (Note the author's 
bibliography of 173 titles.) The present part of the Fifteenth 
Yearbook, accordingly, represents probably as comprehensive and 
as authoritative a statement of the junior-high-school movement as 
has thus far appeared in our literature. Those of our members 
who desire to familiarize themselves with the general problems 
involved in the movement will find the discussion in the main body 
of the text most useful, while those who are already directly 
concerned in the organization and supervision of junior high 
schools will find especially valuable the summary of the present , 
status of the movement which is set forth in the Appendix. 

G. M. W. 



INTRODUCTION 

This study was begun in tlie fall of 1914. It attempts to treat 
topics of pedagogical and psychological importance in junior- 
high-school organization, to give a general idea of the views of 
prominent educators as they have been interpreted, to present 
typical curricula and methods of organization, to give some concep- 
tion of the development and present scope of the movement, and to 
cite sources of information for those who desire to make an ex- 
tended study of the subject. 

The basis of the work consists of material in the form of school 
reports and other special literature, questionnaire returns, and let- 
ters received from school superintendents, state superintendents, 
commissioners of education and collegiate institutions, and the lit- 
erature dealing particularly with the junior high school. An 
attempt has been made, however, to reinforce and supplement this 
by considerable work in related fields of education. 

School officers have been especially generous in response to 
requests for different forms of data and for special literature. The 
writer has been in touch with many of them during the entire 
period the investigation has been under way. He takes this oppor- 
tunity to thank them for their interest and assistance. He expresses 
his indebtedness to Professor William H. Burnham for his advice 
in the preparation of the manuscript, and to Professor Charles 
Hughes Johnston, Professor Alexander J. Inglis, and especially to 
Professor Guy M. Whipple for suggestions and criticisms. 



CHAPTER I 

FEATURES OF READJUSTMENT 
HISTOEICAL SURVEY OF THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL^ 

In the later eighties President Eliot took a position, which 
he has held since, that secondary education should 'dip down' to 
include the last two years of the elementary school. He seems to 
have been concerned primarily with the steadily increasing age 
of the average Harvard freshman, and to have looked upon this 
alteration in secondary education as a possible remedy for it. 
Other colleges were soon concerned with the same problem, and 
throughout the country attention came to be focused upon the 
educational system to determine what should be done.^ This gave 
rise to the "Committee of Ten," in whose report it was pointed 
out that each one of the groups of experts that submitted reports 
upon the work of the high-school subjects was anxious that the 
work in its particular field should be begun earlier than was then 
customary.2 

In another connection, the following extract is found in the 

report : 

In the opinion of the committee several subjects now reserved for the high 
schools, such as algebra, geometry, natural science, and foreign languages, 
should be begun earlier than now;j or as an alternative, the secondary school 
period should be made to begin two years earlier than at present, leaving six 
years instead of eight for the elementary-school period.* 

In the deliberations of the ' ' Committee of Fifteen ' ' the ques- 
tion was raised whether the elementary course should be eight 



^Bunker, F. F. Eeorganization of the public school system. U. S. Bureau 
of Educ. Bull., No. 8, 1916. 186 pp. (Gives an extended historical account of 
the junior high school with an inclusive bibliography.) 

-Ihid., pp. 44-47. 

^Eliot, C. W. (chairman). Beport of the Committee on Secondary School 
Studies. Washington Gov 't Ptg. Office, 1893. 249 pp. p. 14. 

*Ihid., p. 45. 



10 TEE FIFTEENTH YEAEBOOK 

years and the secondary course four years ; or whether each course 
should be six years. ^ An equal division of time was not recom- 
mended by the committee. From this time on, however, discus- 
sion of the question became more general. Dissatisfaction with 
the rigidity of the grade system and the conviction that time could 
be economized in education were productive of numerous plans of 
flexible promotions, which flourished during the decade beginning 
approximately with the year 1890, but which have persisted only 
to a limited extent. These plans did not solve the problem, for 
the agitation against the school system continued to gain momen- 
tum. Moreover, the personality of the originator of a plan seems 
to have been one necessary ingredient in its success ; and the plans 
were pedagogically unsound in that on the one hand, they facili- 
tated the progress of groups and not of individuals, while on the 
other hand they gave little attention to the program of studies as 
such. 

During this period another plan to economize time was brought 
forward, which consisted in reducing the number of elementary 
grades. Kansas City, with its seven-grade elementarj^ and four- 
year high school, is a well-known example of this latter plan, al- 
though schools may be found in many states with the same organi- 
zation.^ 

Yet during the same period there were those who proposed to 
attack the problem from another angle, who insisted that the real 
solution lay in the division of the twelve years equally between 
elementary and secondary education. The essential difference be- 
tween these two parties was that, whereas the one was desirous ot 
destroying the rigidity of the grade system, thereby allowing more 
rapid progress over the same curriculum for groups of able students, 
the other would introduce high-school methods and subjects into tne 
seventh and eighth grades and subjugate the existing curriculum to 
a process of condensation and elimination. 



^Beport of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education. Published 
for the N. B. A. by the Amer. Book Co., 1895. 235 pp. p. 10. 

^Greenwood, J. M. Shorter time in elementary school work. Edtic. Eev., 
24: 1902, 375-390. 

Solan, F. L. Shortening the years of elementary schooling. Sch. Bev., 
11: 1903, 4-17. 



THE JVNIOE HIGH SCHOOL H 

Butler, in 1898, argued for a "base-line from which to measure 
and lay out the educational course, in the nature of the child-mind 
and in the character of studies pursued rather than any merely 
formal and external scheme of administrative classification. ' ' Ele- 
mentary education, for which he declared six years is sufficient, 
lasts from the age of six or seven to the period of adolescence, and 
gives general training in the elements of knowledge. Adolescence, 
which with us is normally from twelve to sixteen or from thirteen 
to seventeen, determines the period and nature of secondary 
education J 

An abundance of literature, dealing with all phases of ele- 
mentary and high-school organization and curricula and including 
nearly all of the present-day arguments for or against the junior 
high school, appeared from 1900 to 1904. Three points of emphasis 
were noticeable. These have persisted, although they are at present 
less sharply differentiated. They were : Emphasis on the economy 
of time ; emphasis on better mastery of subject matter ; and empha- 
sis on the reorganization of the curriculum. The first of these 
factors has probably been the most potent in bringing about the 
reorganization that is now national in its scope. In 1903 a com- 
mittee was appointed in the N. E. A. to investigate the culture ele- 
ment and the economy of time in education. This committee did 
not report the next year, but in 1905 it recommended that reports 
be prepared which should consider whether the four years between 
the ages fourteen and eighteen, or the six years between the ages 
twelve and eighteen is the best period for secondary education.^ 
Another committee, of which President Harper was chairman, was 
likewise appointed in 1903 and reported in 1905 at the eighteenth 
educational conference of the academies and high schools in rela- 
tions v/ith the University of Chicago. Nearly the same questions 
were proposed for consideration as by the N. E. A committee.^ 
About the same time the Pettee committee formulated a schematic 



'Butler, N. M. The scope and function of secondary education. Educ. 
Bev., 16: 1898, 15-27. 

^Proc. N. E. A., 1905, p. 279. 

"Harper, W. E. (Chairman). Eeport of the Commission of Twenty-one. 
Sch. Bev., 13 : 1905, 23-25. 



12 TRE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

program for a six-year high school ;^*^ and some time later the com- 
mittee of the North Central Association was put to work. 

In 1901, Dewey set forth the view that the educational system, 
which had developed a rather independent institutional existence, 
should be unified and brought into closer relation with existing 
social life. A readjustment was needed in the high school as the 
connecting link between the elementary school, which was created 
by a broad democratic movement, and the college, representative 
of a more aristocratic ideal. ^^ Two years later he declared that 
the aim of the elementary school was not properly conceived, and 
that better results would be obtained if emphasis were transferred 
to the problem of mental attitude to be gained in the elementary 
school. According to his conception, the proper aim of elementary 
tuition should be to organize the instincts and impulses of children 
into working tools and interests. This ought to be accomplished 
in six years. ' ' The elementary school would be relieved of its two 
chief wasting factors: on the one side, daily repetition of drill in 
rudiments Avhich have been previously mastered; and upon the 
other, anticipations of subject matter so difficult that it can be pur- 
sued intelligently only at a later period." The high school, which 
begins at no definite point and ends at none, would then be able 
to formulate a definite task or aim of its own. The equal division 
of the twelve years between elementary education and secondary 
education would allow each to face its own particular problem. ^2 

In 1903, Hanus and Snedden discussed aspects of the problem. 
In Hanus' opinion the function of the elementary school was to 
give a command of the school arts — reading, writing, and arith- 
metic — as well as some of the beginnings of general culture. He 
believed an extension of the time of secondary education would en- 
able the public school pupil, as well as the private school pupil, to 
profit ''by all the resources that the schools with good teaching and 
good equipment can offer him." He added that not all pupils in 



"Quoted by P. H. Hanns. A six-year hioh-school program. Ednc. Rev., 
25: 1903, 455-463. 

"Dewey, J. Current problems in secondary education. Sch. Eev., 10 : 
1902, 13-28. 

^^Dewey, J. Discussion: Shortening tlie years of elementary schooling. 
Sch. Rev., 11: 1903, pp. 17-20. 



TRE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 13 

the last two grammar grades should study languages or academic 
subjects, but rather that appropriate vocational training might be 
provided for many, and appropriate technical training at the 
upper end of all secondary or high schools. ^^ Snedden came out 
clearly for diffentiated curricula beginning with the seventh grade. 
He argued that, although there were objections to early elections, 
these were necessary because there was doubt regarding the ulti- 
mate educational values of the subjects, because a large number of 
boys and girls stop school at an early age, and because of the pos- 
sibilities of subsequent education. He urged early elections as the 
most satisfactory means of enlisting public sentiment and of ad- 
justing educational work to the individual pupil, for then the 
"needs of the community would be met to a greater extent than is 
now the case, and certainly to a much greater extent than would be 
the case if secondary education studies should be prescribed for 
all pupils alike, "1^ 

Since 1900, the movement has rapidly gained headway. In 
1905, Lyttle again advocated that the twelve-year course of study 
should be equally divided between the elementary school and the 
secondary school. He repeated the point stressed by Butler and 
Hanus that the elementary school should teach the rudiments of 
the common subjects, and advocated differentiation along three 
lines — business, mechanical arts, and professions. ^^ In 1907, Mor- 
rison, as chairman of the N. E. A. committee, summed up the argu- 
ments for the junior high school, ^^ and Hartwell found from his 
questionnaire study that the consensus of opinion was favorable 
to departmental study.^^ In 1908, Lyttle for the committee on six- 
year courses called attention to the fact that the six-three-three 



"Hanus, P. BT. A six-year high-school program. Sch. Bev., 25: 1903, 
455-463. 

"Snedden, D. S. The six-year high school. Educ. Bev., 26 : 1903, 525-529. 

^TLiyttle, E, W. Should the twelve-year course of study be equally divided 
between the elementary school and the secondary school? Proc. N.E.A., 1905, 
428-433. 

"Morrison, G. B, Keport of the Committee on an Equal Division of the 
Twelve Years in the Public Schools between the District and High Schools. 
Proc. N. E. A., 1907, pp. 705-710. 

"Hartwell, C. S. Liberating lower education. Sch. Bev., 15 : 1907, 436- 
458; pp. 184-196. 



14 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

division was being agitated in some places, and that at least ten 
cities had employed the six-six division and believed it to be more 
economical. He outlined a provisional curriculum for the last two 
elementary grades, according to which approximately seventy per 
cent, of the work of the seventh and eighth grades was required 
and the other thirty per cent, was elective, which is fairly repre- 
sentative of the junior-high-school curriculum today. ^^ The next 
year the committee reported that the sentiment in favor of the pro- 
posed plan was growing and that twenty-two cities were organ- 
ized.^^ In 1912, Francis outlined the work of the Los Angeles inter- 
mediate schools ;2<^ and in 1914 Kingsley asserted that the eight- 
four plan was rapidly growing obsolete.-^ 

DEFINITION OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

Most definitions of the junior high school have been written 
from the standpoint of what the school should accomplish, and have 
been colored therefore by the views of their formulators. For one 
who has not studied the junior high school thoroughly it is extreme- 
ly difficult to define briefly and clearly so variable and complex an 
institution as the junior high school; explanation and description 
are perhaps better than definition. A glance at some definitions 
will illustrate the point. 

A defi.nition which has received considerable attention is that 
of Briggs, who defined the junior high school for the purposes of 
his recent study as "an organization of grades seven and eight or 
seven to nine to provide by various means for individual differences, 
especially by an earlier introduction of prevocational work and of 
subjects usually taught in the high school. "^2 For Davis, the essen- 



^^Lyttle, E. W. (Chairman). Report of the Committee on Six- Year Course 
of Study. Proc. JSf. E. A., 1908, pp. 625-628. 

"Morrison, C. P. Third report of the Committee on Six- Year Course of 
Study. Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 498-503. 

-"Francis, J. H. A reorganization of our school system. Proc. X. E. A., 
1912, pp. 368-376. 

^Kingsley, C. D. Problem confronting the Commission on Reorganization 
of Secondary Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 483-488. 

"Briggs, T. H. Secondary education. Sept. U. S. Commissioner Ediic, 
1914, Vol. 1, p. 137. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 15 

tial elements of a junior high school are a "rather complete reor- 
ganization of the subject matter to be taught, particularly within 
the seventh and eighth grades;" provision for differentiated cur- 
ricula; provision for "some individual freedom of election of 
courses on the part of the pupils;" departmental teaching; and 
promotion by subject. Negatively, Davis asserts that the plan does 
not consist merely in segregating the pupils of these grades; nor 
in placing them with the high school ; nor in departmentalization 
and promotion by subject; nor in having high-school teachers in- 
struct seventh or eighth-grade classes.^^ Horn brings out prac- 
tically the same negative points, adding that "if it is in reality an 
institution worthy of its place in our educational economy, it is 
an institution which is neither an elementary school nor a high 
school, but a provision for the needs of those children for which 
neither of the older institutions made suitable provision. It par- 
takes to some extent of the nature of each, but is essentially 
different in character. ' ' ^4 

Stetson defines the junior high school as a "definite con- 
structive attempt to make the school serve the community by bridg- 
ing the gap between the grammar grades and the high school by 
offering some form of p re-vocational work to those who can never 
attend high school, and through its ability to give them more vital 
and wider interests. "^^ For Templeton, the essential thing is to 
secure a homogeneous school atmosphere which will be more con- 
ducive to effective work on the part of both pupils and teachers, 
and for which the segregation of grades seven, eight and nine are 
necessary.26 To Tomlinson's mind, the "primary object of the 
junior high school is to give the pupils an opportunity to become 
familiar with secondary school organization, customs and manners 
two years earlier. "^''^ HoUister believes that, if real adjustment 



^'Davis, C. O. TTie subject-matter and administration of the six-three-three 
plan of secondary schools. Univ. of Mich. Bull. No. 9, 1915, pp. 8-9. 

"Horn, P. W. The junior high school in Houston, Texas. El. Sch. Jour. 
26: 1916, 91-95. 

^'Cited from The Kentucky High School Quarterly, July, 1915, p. 17, 

^^Prom a paper read before the High School Section of the Cal. Teach. 
Assn., Oakland, Dec. 30, 1913. 

"'Cited from The Kentucky High School Quarterly, July, 1915, p. 29. 



16 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

is to be made, it must come ' ' in the materials and processes of edu- 
cation with, special reference to the changing conditions in the 
physical and mental characteristics of those to be educated. Here 
lies the fundamental fact to be considered first of all where any 
movement is undertaken for reform. ' '^^ 

The majority of the foregoing definitions stress the principle 
of individual differences more than any other; but a second vital 
principle is also brought out: namely, the reorganization of sub- 
ject matter for the junior high school from a social standpoint, and 
its placement upon a sound pedagogical and psychological basis 
for instruction. At the present stage of development, it does not 
seem desirable to limit the junior high school to any particular 
group of grades. 

Some cities have claimed to possess junior high schools and 
have been listed as possessing them when they have had only an 
arrangement for rapid progress of bright pupils. Other cities with 
the same arrangement have not claimed to possess junior high 
schools, although some have been listed as possessing them, at times 
contrary to their wishes. The arrangement in question has con- 
sisted essentially in giving able pupils an opportunity to take up 
certain high-school subjects— usually languages, algebra, or gen- 
eral science — ^before completing the eight grades. Accelerating this 
class of pupils is one means of providing for individual differences, 
but this feature of itself is only one of the many connected with 
the junior high school, whose advantages ought to be extended to 
every pupil, not to a favored few. If any line of demarcation is 
drawn, it would seem that cities that do not have a junior-high- 
school system, or that are not working toward such a system, ought 
not to be classed as possessing a junior high school. In this study, 
a city has been classed as having the junior high school if it 
claimed to have it. 

The term "Junior High School" is most frequently used, 
with "Intermediate School" next in popularity. The terms mean 
precisely the same. "Junior High School" is employed nearly 
everywhere except in the states on the western coast, where ' ' Inter- 



*Hollister, H. A. High-school and class management. 1915, 314 pp. (p. 97), 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 17 

mediate School" is preferred; although the latter term is used by 
a few superintendents throughout the middle west, New England, 
and the middle Atlantic states. "Junior School," "Grammar 
School," "Prevocational School," "Lower High School," "Con- 
solidated School," etc., are also used in a few places as synonyms. 
"Junior High School" seems to be a name that has arisen 
from the downward extension of the high school to include pupils 
who were younger. It denotes with fair accuracy the work in- 
cluded, and is decidedly popular with children. Its use is wide- 
spread probably because as a name it means more to school officials 
than "Intermediate School;" or that the name first gained foot- 
hold in the middle west and east. On the other hand, it is argued 
by some that this organization is not a high-school organization, 
nor does it resemble the elementary school, but rather is it inter- 
mediate betvv^een them, both as to methods and as to subject matter. 
State Superintendent Gary, of Wisconsin, gives as an additional 
reason for avoiding the term 'junior high school' that "one high 
school is enough in the minds of the people. ' ' ^9 

AEGUMENTS FOR THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL'" 
Gurrent literature is replete with accusations brought against 
the eight-four method of grading. It is declared that our present 
method of grouping the grades is an historical accident, and is 
without pedagogical or psychological justification. Indeed, psy- 
chology demands a totally different system. The period between 
the ages of twelve and fifteen marks a time when the majority of 
children pass from the stage of childhood into that of youth, and 
this period of transition is accompanied by marked psychic changes. 

^Beport of the Committee on the Beorganisation of the Pullic School on 
a Six-Six Plan. Issued by C. P. Gary, State Supt., Madison, Wis., 1914. 11 
pp. (bibl.). (p. 4.) 

=°Hill, C. M. The junior high school. Bull, of the Mo. State Normal, 
Springfield, 1915. Vol. 10, No. 3, 48 pp. (Gives an excellent summary of the 
arguments for the junior high school.) 

Johnston, C. H. Movement toward the reorganization of secondary educa- 
tion. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1915. Published also in Univ. of III. School of 
Educ. Bull. No. 13, 1914, pp. 32-38. (Summarizes arguments for and against 
the junior high school.) 

The Junior High School. Document No. 39, Council of Education, State 
of New Jersey, 31 pp. (bibl.). (Has reasons for and against the junior high 
school.) 



18 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

Adolescence is a period of storm and stress, of changeableness, in- 
tense emotions, self-assertion, strong social attractions, and awaken- 
ing to the significance of the industrial world and vocation. The 
adolescent begins to judge, inquire, reason, and he must have 
material upon which to exercise these powers. Our failure in the 
last two years of the elementary school has arisen out of our 
ignorance of the psychology of adolescence, for we have ignored its 
most salient points in arranging the curriculum, the teaching 
force, and the social activities of the school. For psychological 
reasons the study of foreign languages should be begun at the age 
of twelve, and such subjects as formal grammar and technical 
arithmetic should come later. There is also need of closer correla- 
tion between different subjects, such as history and geography. 
More important, individual differences in pupils call for at least a 
partial differentiation of courses to supply individual demands. 
But little vocational or prevocational training has been given, and 
the old organization has made it difficult to provide this training, 
which is properly begun at this age. Suitable work has not been 
provided for large or mature pupils, but they have been kept to 
their disadvantage in classes with smaller children. 

Again, the old plan is positively wasteful : economically, for 
the time of the teachers has been taken up with small classes and 
equipment has not been used to its capacity; pedagogically,^i for 
the aim up to this time has been to cover ground and to acquire 
information rather to develop attitudes and capacities, while the 
result has been a monotonous drill of elements previously mastered. 
An examination of seventh and eighth-grade curricula shows that 
about forty per cent, of the work is of questionable value, and 
about twelve per cent, of the time is spent in the study of grammar 
alone. Tests show that relatively little progress is made in these 
grades in the common branches,^ ^ while leading educators contend, 
and experimental evidence confirms the contention, that the tools 



"Supt. Maxwell considers this phase of the question in his 1914 report, 
(pp. 120-123) and in his 1915 report (pp. 94-95). His first statement is criti- 
cised by C. H. Johnston in an editorial in Educ. Ad. and Siiper,, 1: 1915, 
485-587. 

^-Hill, C. M. The junior high school. Bull, of the Mo. State Normal, 
Springfield, 1915, Vol. 10, No. 3, 48 pp. (pp. 26-29.) 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 19 

of learning may be acquired in six years and that eight are not 
required. Moreover, the elementary school does not prepare for 
the high school, as is shown by the failure of half the pupils to 
enter the second high-school year ; and it does not train for life, 
for there are endless criticisms made alike by its graduates and 
the business men employing them. Neither does it train for citi- 
zenship, nor for the industries. In short, the elementary curri- 
culum leads nowhere. 

The plan of providing one teacher for each grade is of value 
for the first six grades, but should not be continued through the 
next two years. For the proper development of the child's mind 
it is necessary that he now be brought into contact with a greater 
number of teachers, including more men teachers. To insure flex- 
ibility, pupils must be promoted by subjects. Departmental teach- 
ing will meet these problems in the most satisfactory way, while 
at the same time teachers who are specialists in their lines will be 
provided. In general, a type of teacher suited for this particular 
environment will be developed. 

The whole school system will be more nearly unified by group- 
ing together children of the same mental and physical develop- 
ment. The elementary school, the junior high school, or intermedi- 
ate school, and the senior high school form homogeneous groups'; 
and social activities and school organization can better be fitted to 
these groups. Under the old plan pupils of the junior-high-school 
age have been particularly unfortunate in these respects, for their 
development demands a more liberal treatment than can be af- 
forded in the elementary school, while their experience and develop- 
ment are not sufficient to allow the freedom of the high school. 
Such a grouping will also allow each division of the school to con- 
centrate more effectively upon its own particular part of the entire 
school curriculum. 

The old plan is undemocratic, for democracy means equal op- 
portunity, and heretofore attention has been given only to those 
that will go on in the school. Again, the lack of vitalized curric- 
ulum on the part of the seventh and eighth grades, the change 
in subjects, the sudden change to the departmental teaching in the 
high school, and the inability on the part of the pupil to study 



20 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

independently are responsible for the gap between the eighth and 
tenth grades which less than half of the pupils are able to cross. 
Finally, the plan of having eight years in the elementary and four 
years in the high school finds no parallel in European countries. 

AEGUMENTS AGAINST THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 

The arguments against the junior high school are not receiving 
as much attention as those in its favor : In the first place the new 
plan will be more expensive, while the results desired may be at- 
tained through improving the present system. It has not been 
proved that there is necessary for psychological reasons such a 
radical change in school methods at this age as has been asserted. 
On the contrary, such evidence as we have shows that the transition 
from childhood through youth to manhood is a gradual rather than 
a saltatory process ; and a scheme assuming the opposite will there- 
fore fail for psychological reasons. Again, the advocates of the 
junior high school underestimate the importance of drill. "An 
enforced rate of intellectual progress, which may be contrary to 
the fundamental law of the child's rate of maturing, is not what 
is wanted." More work should not be attempted, but the work 
attempted should be done better than at present.^^ There is also 
grave danger that specialization will be carried to an extreme, or, 
in other words, that attention will be focussed upon the acquisition 
of technical skill rather than upon the educative value of the par- 
ticular subjects. Furthermore, a democratic government is de- 
pendent upon the ability of its citizens to think, not only upon a 
high plane, but also upon a common plane. The former considera- 
tion means they must have sufficient and varied knowledge and 
experience, or elements of thought; the latter that these elements 
of thought must be largely the same to allow individuals to consider 
together the common problems of democracy. If this be true, there 
is a certain amount of knowledge which ought to be common to all, 
and which can be best given in undifferentiated curricula.^^ 



^'Sachs, J. The American Secondary School. 1912, 295 pp. (p. 112). 
°*Bagley, W. C. Principles justifying common elements in the school pro- 
gram. JJniv. of III. School of Educ. Bull. No. 13, 1914, pp. 9-21. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 21 

The kind of teachers and principals demanded by the junior 
high school is not procurable. Moreover, the teachers and princi- 
pals who have been employed in these grades in the elementary 
schools and who are not advanced to positions in the junior high 
schools will oppose the organization. Departmental teaching, also, 
has a number of serious defects. In the first place, a' child of this 
age will find it difficult to adjust himself to so many different 
teachers, and he will be thrown entirely upon his own responsibility 
at a time when he needs the teacher's careful guidance. In the 
second place, teachers of one subject become narrowed; there is 
always a tendency on the part of some to overwork the pupils in 
their courses ; and in general it is harder to place the responsibility 
of poor teaching. 

Finally, small high schools with too few students to provide 
differentiated curricula will reorganize for the sole reason that it 
is being done elsewhere. In the more populous places, local con- 
ditions will largely determine the location of junior-high-school 
centers, and the convenience of the pupils who are to attend them 
must be taken into account. One or two instances have already 
been found where pupils attended a grade school rather than a 
more distant junior high school. 

A more complicated organization, which the junior high school 
necessitates, will bring added difficulties in administration and dis- 
cipline; and the possibility that the curriculum will deteriorate 
into a manipulation of courses as has been the case in the high 
school, but with more disastrous results. There may also be a 
tendency for the school system to divide into three distinct ad- 
ministrative units, with a *'gap" between the sixth and seventh 
and between the ninth and tenth grades. 

COST OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

Some of the advocates of the junior high school have main- 
tained it would be less expensive than the old organization, and 
in support of this claim the figures of Superintendent Rundlett of 
Concord and the estimates of Professor Hanus, in the New York 
survey, have been cited again and again. At present, however, 
it is being frankly admitted that this organization is costing morel 



22 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

Unless poorly prepared teachers are employed and a non-elective 
course of study given — where instrnction will be for 'the class and 
not for the individual — it may well be expected this will be the 
case. At present it is estimated that the per capita expense will 
be midway between that of the elementary and of the high school. 

From another standpoint, advantages have arisen. In the 
first place, junior-high-sehool pupils require less elaborate labora- 
tories and, shops, which, with a longer school day, can be utilized 
to their capacity. Secondly, in districts where more school build- 
ings have been needed, sehoolboards have adopted the policy of 
providing junior-high-school centers, transferring the seventh and 
eighth grades from the elementary schools and perhaps the ninth 
grades from the high schools, thus alleviating the crowded con- 
ditions in both instances. Sometimes, new junior high schools 
have been erected, in other cases old grammar-school or high-school 
buildings have been utilized, and new quarters provided for the 
elementary or the high-school pupils. The question of building 
accommodations has had great significance when the proposed 
change has been under consideration. 

ECOXOMY OF TIME AXD THE JUXIOE HIGH SCHOOL 

The fruits of the labors of the N. E. A. Committees on the 
Economy of Time in Education are set forth in the classical report 
submitted in 1913.35 It has already been pointed out that, while 
it is difficult to single out one factor that has been most potent in 
bringing about the present-day reorganization of the entire educa- 
tional system, the question of economy of time has been uppermost 
in the minds of the majority, at least until recently. The real 
junior-high-school movement of the present day aims to combine 
this element with a thorough overhauling of subject-matter, placing 
instruction on a firm and rational pedagogical basis. 

Various committees and school officials that have worked upon 
the question of secondary educational organization in recent years 
have recommended plans essentially the same as the scheme pre- 



^"Baker, J. H. (Chairman). Economy of time in education. V. S. Bur. 
of Educ. Bull. No. 38, 1913, 106 pp. (bibl.). 



TKE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 23 

sented by the Committee on the Economy of Time in Education. 
An improvement long sought in the American educational scheme 
is the establishment of a more connected and a more logical system, 
which shall at the same time provide the best training for those 
who drop out of school. Although the pauses in the proposed plan 
are to end a more or less definite period of training that is intended 
to fit well for life if withdrawal from school should occur, yet 
articulation as a whole is made more complete and the entire educa- 
tional process is more nearly a unified whole. At the same time 
it is recognized that the avenue to higher accomplishment must 
always be kept open and transfer from one curriculum to the other 
ihust involve a minimum loss of time. It is hoped the reorganiza- 
tion of the seventh and eighth grades will contribute to the unifica- 
tion of the educational system in the following ways: By intro- 
ducing into these grades some of the high-school subjects and by 
reserving some of the more difficult work of the elementary grades 
for the high school; by eliminating non-essential subject matter; 
by vitalizing instruction ; by the gradual establishment of depart- 
mental teaching and consequent promotion by subject; and' by 
closely articulating the w^ork of these grades with that of the ele- 
mentary school from below and of the high school from above. 

Comparison has been made again and again between our 
system of schools and the systems of foreign countries, and the 
conclusion drawn that the American young man enters upon pro- 
fessional or graduate study on the average two years later than 
is necessary. Moreover, there are psychological reasons advanced 
in connection with this point. The period of greatest plasticity 
ends with the twenties; fourteen or fifteen is too late an age to 
begin the acquisition of the first foreign language or to begin com- 
mercial subjects, and twenty-two is too late to begin closer special- 
ization, whether it be in apprentice work or in professional study. 
Entrance upon a profession should not be made at so late an age 
as twenty-seven. Under our system the age of keen interest is 
passed while the student is still in college, and the indifference 
that is a frequent ailment of college graduates is pointed to by 
many as a result of a course with no definite aim. 



24 



TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



The provisional time scheme of the Committee on the Economy 
of Time is as follows -^^ 

Elementary education, ages six to twelve. 
Secondary education, ages twelve to eiglit€en. 
College education, ages eighteen to twenty, or sixteen to twenty. 
University education, ages twenty to twenty-four (graduate or professional 
school) . 

Superintendents and principals are already reporting a saving 
of time, especially in mathematics and languages and to a less 
extent in commercial work, general science and manual arts. 
Printed high-school courses of study frequently indicate how much 
high-school credit is accorded for a subject pursued below the 
ninth grade (see Table 1). Often, one-half credit is given. Thus, 
foreign language — which seems to lend itself more readily to the 

TABLE 1 

AMOUNT OF HiGH-SCHOOL CeeDIT ALLOWED TO PUPILS OF THE LOS ANGELES 

Inteemediate Schools" 



SXTBJECT 


B7 


A7 


B8 


A8 


B9 


A9 


Algebra 






% 


% 


1 

V2 

% 

y* 

1 
1 
1 




Ancient History 






1 




y2 


^ 


% 


-"k 


y2 
1 


Commercial Arithmetic 


Cookery 










1 


English 










Freehand. Drawing 






V2 


y* 

¥2 


% 




% 


Vz 


1 




1 


German 

Latin 




Vz 


V2 


y2 
y2 


1 
1 


Music (Glee Club or Orchestra) 










% 


Oral English 










% 













% 












1 




V2 


% 
% 

Vz 
% 


V2 


y* 
y2 

y* 


1/. 


Spanish 


1 
1 




% 







^'Ihid., p. 10. 

"Superintendent's report, 1914, p. 137. 

See also Bull, of Univ. of Wis., No. 749, Wis. H. S. Announcement, 1915- 
16, p. 18. 



TEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 25 

economy-of-time feature — studied through the seventh and eighth 
grades is counted as equivalent to one year in the high school. 
The principle of flexibility enables bright pupils to advance by 
subjects, with the result that in numerous cases pupils are one year 
ahead in some subject. It is perhaps correct to say that in a well- 
organized school capable pupils may readily complete the six years 
in five. 

Besides the National Education Association and North Central 
Association committees now at work upon this problem, numerous 
city and state systems have appointed committees to systematize 
school work for their own localities. These reports, when sub- 
mitted, will put the junior-high-school curriculum upon a more 
solid foundation as far as economy of time is concerned. Mean- 
while, until further adjustment relative to the saving of time can 
be made, a number of institutions of higher learning are consider- 
ing an arrangement whereby a student may begin special train- 
ing in courses such as law, medicine, or engineering, in his junior 
college year. A majority would retain the Bachelor of Arts degree 
at its present standard, allowing, however, almost any consistent 
group, either professional or "cultural," to be elected the last two 
years.^^ 

The years in which 159 schools were organized upon the junior- 
high-school basis, as given by our questionnaire returns (see Ap- 
pendix, Section 3) are shown in Table 2. 

TABLE 2 
Date of Oeganization of 159 Junior High Schools 



98 99 
2 1 



14 



15 1 16 



41 36 I 13 



If the cities in this table are representative, the junior high 
school is a recent product, as far as actual organization is con- 
cerned. Correctly or not, the ones referred to as pioneers, from 
the standpoint of the present conception of the junior high school, 
are Columbus, Ohio (1909), Berkeley, Cal. (1910), Concord, N. H. 



'^Baker, J. H. (Chairman). Economy of time in education. U. S. Bur. of 
Educ. Bull. No. 38, 1913. p. 73. 



26 THE FIFTEEXTH YEAEBOOK 

(1910) and Los Angeles (1911). Crawfordsville, Ind. mentions 
1907; Madison, Ind., 1908, and Ogden, Utah, 1909 as the year wheu 
their readjustment began. 

However, in response to the agitation begun a number of years 
before, a number of cities had begun to work out plans which, if 
not designated as junior high schools, exhibited many features of 
the present organization. Thus, Superintendent T. A. Mott de- 
scribed in 1901 the working of the system in schools at Richmond, 
Ind., which had been reorganized in 1896. All the seventh and 
eighth grades in the city were collected in one building, and the 
work was done on the departmental plan. In a year and a half 
pupils did a strong high-school year's work in Latin or German. 
Such subjects as algebra, it was stated, seemed well fitted for 
eighth-grade children. Parents elected whether pupils should take 
Latin or German.'^^ 

Kalamazoo has had the seventh and eighth grades depart- 
mentalized for twenty-five years; Worcester and Providence have 
had provision for the rapid advance of capable pupils since 1898 ; 
Fresno, Cal., Muncie, Ind., and Fort Scott, Kan., have had the 
essentials of their present organization for a number of years. 

PRESENT EXTENT OF THE MOVEMENT 

The work of Commissioner Claxton is well known, as is that 
of the committees of the National Educational Association and the 
North Central Association, and certain leading universities and 
state departments. The Inland Empire Teachers' Association and 
the National Association of State Universities have been on record 
for some time as favoring the movement. At present, however, 
work is being undertaken that is still wider in scope. More state 
departments are preparing literature or courses of study for their 
schools; numerous state teachers' associations are discussing or 
approving the plan and are follo'wing their action by appointing 



^Mott, T. A. Correlation of high-school and grammar-grade work. Proc. 
N.E.A., 1901, pp. 287-288. 

Bunker, P. P. Eeorganization of the public school system. U. S. Bur. of 
Educ. Bull. No. 8, 1916. (Gives a number of examples of these early organ- 
izations.) 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 27 

committees to work out courses of study; survey after survey has 
recommended the adoption of the junior high school or of some 
form of it, and almost every large city has special arrangements of 
some kind to investigate its own schools and to study what is being 
done elsewhere.- 

As a result of all this, the junior high school is in a stage of 
rapid development. In this investigation returns have been re- 
ceived from 41 states where it is in actual operation. In three of 
the remaining seven states agitation is beginning, while two others 
have types of high schools that their school officials deem better 
suited to local conditions than the junior high school would be. 
In California and in the states lying north of the Mason and 
Dixon line in the middle west are found the greatest number of 
junior high schools and the best organized curricula. New Eng- 
land, New York and Pennsylvania will doubtless see much change 
in this direction during the next two or three years, New Jersey 
is somewhat in advance while the southern states show the least 
development. 

Returns have been received from 268 cities; of these, 189 
have the junior high school more or less well organized, 20 are in 
the process of organization, 29 expect to adopt it later, 24 are 
studying the plan with a view to some mode of reorganization, and 
in 6 it has been recommended to the board of education. Reports 
consulted indicate that it is in operation in 97 additional cities, 
bringing the total up to 365. These schools are perhaps the most 
representative, but this number doubtless does not give the right 
conception of the present extent of the movement. If a complete 
canvass were made of all the cities in the United States, it would 
probably be found that the nation is pretty welT committed to the 
plan of reorganizing its schools on a broad "junior-high-school" 
basis (see Appendix, Section 5). 



CHAPTER II 

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTER- 
ISTICS OF ADOLESCENCEi 

Whenever reasons are presented for the reorganization of the 
two upper grammer grades, we are pretty certain to find a state- 
ment to the effect that the boy or girl reaches the stage of adoles- 
cence at about the age of twelve, that certain physical and mental 
changes then occur, and that these changes should be recognized by 
a change in method of instruction. A careful examination of a 
large amount of literature dealing with arguments for the junior 
high school leads to the conclusion that in many places school 
officials are inclined to accept these arguments without careful 
consideration, and that this is especially true of the argument based 
on the physiology and psychology of the adolescent. Schoolmen 
appear to incline toward the opinion that, whereas we formerly 
thought that adolescence began at fourteen, we now think of it as 
beginning at twelve, and that we must therefore accord to the 
twelve-year-old the treatment formerly given to the pupil two years 
older. 

DEFINITIONS^ 

The term adolescence is taken to denote the period of time 
beginning with puberty and ending with maturity, which is approx- 
imately from 14 to 25 in males and from 12 to 21 in females. 
Puberty is reached when the individual has acquired the develop- 
ment necessary to propagate his species, while pubescence is most 
frequently taken to indicate the stage of transition, or the time 
when the sexual organs are undergoing a noticeable change. 



^Adolescence (1904, 2 vols.), by G. Stanley Hall, furnislies the basis for 
discussion of the psychology of the adolescent in this chapter. For a shorter 
work, see pages 246 to 312 in Principles of Secondary Education (edited by 
P. Monroe, 1914), written by G. M. Whipple. 

^These definitions are adapted from Hall, Whipple, Crampton, and Baldwin. 



28 



TSE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 29 

According to the last definition, prepubescence would mean the 
period up to the time when pubescence begins, and postpubescence 
would mean the period of time following the completion of 
pubescence. 

Chronological age isl determined by the number of years, 
months, and days the individual has lived, and may or may not 
correspond to the physiological age, which is determined by the 
state of physical development and maturity that has been reached, 
as indicated by menstruation, change of voice, eruption of the 
beard, etc. Anatomical age is closely connected with physiological 
age, but has a stricter reference tO| structure, such as is indicated 
by the time of appearance of the six-year-molars, the wisdom tooth, 
or the epiphyses of the bones. Psychological age has reference to 
the degree of mental development attained, and is much more 
closely connected with physiological age than with chronological 
age. Pedagogical age denotes the school standing. To these is 
sometimes added a moral or religious age, which has reference to 
the moral or religious outlook, especially of the youth compared 
with that of the child. 

THE GENEEAL PHENOMENA OF ADOLESCENCE 

The f olloAving quotations give a general view of the way differ- 
ent psychologists regard the mental and physical changes of adoles- 
cence. For the most part they agree in saying that mental and 
physical acceleration go together, but disagree in other particulars. 

Adolescence is a new birth, for the higher and more completely human 

traits are now born Development is less gradual and more saltatory 

The annual rate of growth in height, weight, and strength is increased 

and often doubled, and even more. Important functions previously non-existent 
arise. Growth of parts and organs loses its former proportions, some perma- 
nently and some for a season. Some of these are still growing in old age and 
others are soon arrested and atrophy. The old moduli of dimensions become 
obsolete and old harmonies are broken. The range of individual differences 
and average errors in all physical measurements an(^ all psychic tests increases. 
Some linger long in the childish stage and advance late or slowly, while others 

push on with a sudden outburst of impulsion to early maturity Interest 

in. adult life and in vocations develops. Youth awakens to a new world and 
understands neither it nor; himself. The whole future of life depends on how 



30 THE FIFTEEXTH YEARBOOK 

the new powers now given suddenly and in profusion are husbanded and 
directed. (Gr. S. Hall, Adolescence, vol. 1, pp. siii-xiv.) 

The change from an asexual to a sexual life may occur at any age from 
6 to 20 years, usually between 12 and 15, but when it does occur the changes 
are profound. In the short space of six months the child becomes a man or 
a ' woman, and the process is fraught) with the dangers and turmoil of a new 
birth. There is an outburst of physical growth, 4 to 5 inches are added to 
height, 30 to 40 pounds to weight, and strength may be doubled in a short 
space of time. New mental abilities appear, while others disappear, the type 
of play changes, new companions are sought, new likings, tendencies, enthusi- 
asms, and emotions make up the whole life. Old landmarks of life fade and 

new ones are eagerly sought The important fact that is constantly 

disregarded is the fact that the pubertal change leaves the child a wholly 
different being — different mentally, physically, morally, and ethically from the 
children in the state just left behind. (C. Ward Crampton. Int. Cong, on Hyg. 
and Demog., 1912. vol. 3, p. 228.) 

It is probable that acceleration of body growth and mental growth go 
hand in hand, and not vice versa. (F. Boas, Cye. of Ed. Vol. 3, pp 187-190.) 

It is a favorite dictum of superficial psychology and pedagogy that 
instincts lie entirely dormant and then spring into full strength within a 
few weeks. At a certain stage, we are told, such and such a tendency has 
its 'nascent period' or ripening time * * * * The one instinct whose ap- 
pearance seems most like a dramatic rushing upon life's stage — the sex 
instinct — is found upon careful study to be gradually maturing for years. 
The capacity for reasoning shows no signs by any t-ests as yet given of de- 
veloping twice as much in any one year from five to twenty-five as in any 
other. In the cases whera the differences between children of different ages 
may be taken roughly to measure the rate of inner growth of capacities, 
what data we, have show nothing to justify the doctrine of sudden ripening 
in serial order * * * * Indeed every tendency that has been subjected to 
anything like rigid scrutiny seems to fit the word- gradual rather than the 
word sudden in the rate of its maturing. (E. L. Thorndike, Educational 
Psychology. A^ol. 1. pp. 260-3.) 

However, the manifold alterations and augmentations in psychic life — 
the new instincts, feelings, ideals, motives, and the general ripening of in- 
tellectual grasp that makel up the psychological picture of adolescence — point 
unmistakably to corresponding alterations in brain activity. These altera- 
tions may be in part the functional maturing of cells and tracts hitherto 
dormant, and in part the extension and ramification of the fiber processes 
of cells already mature, particularly in the ' higher ' association areas of 
the cortex. The one development would account for the awakening of new 
instinctive tendencies, the other for the enriching and elaboration of men- 
tality in general. (G. M. "Whipple, in Principles of Seeondarv Education, p. 
257.) 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 31 

Two children fifteen years of age may vary from each other at least 
four years in their stages of physiological development — a fact which should 
be taken into consideration in all educational work, whether physical or men- 
tal. The results of the writer's previous study show that the stages of 
physical and mental maturity are parallel, irrespective of precocity or bright- 
ness; therefore, the obvious educational corollary is that our school systems, 
public and private, should take into careful consideration the physiological 
age and the accompanying stages of mental maturity of boys and girls, rather 
than the chronological age and brightness, as is now done. This would re- 
quire that tall, healthy children of accelerated physiological development be 
encouraged to proceed through school as rapidly as possible within the limits 
of thoroughness, and that the small, light children of retarded physiological 
development be kept below or in the normal grade, doing supplementary 
work, since these short, light pupils are immature in mental development, 
although in many cases precocious in degree of brightness. (B. T. Baldwin. 
A measuring scale for physical growth and physiological age. Fifteenth 
Yearbook of this Society, 1916, p. 15.) 

The problem of secondary education becomes one of determin- 
ing more clearly the instincts or capacities peculiar to the ado- 
lescent, and the method of their treatment so that they may be 
productive of recognized values. Hall regards the sex instinct as 
the basis of the changes of this age, and many other traits as ' ' long- 
eireuitings" or "irradiations" of the sex instinct. Laying aside for 
the moment the question of the suddenness with which the tenden- 
cies appear, it will probably be admitted that the youth and the 
child differ markedly with respect to such traits as altruism, 
aesthetic appreciation, religious outlook, social relations, as well as 
the more primary sexual characteristics ; and also in powers or capa- 
bilities such as are included in terms like ' reason. ' Whipple points 
out that we do not need to assume that these instinctive responses 
to stimulations are wholly lacking up to the time of puberty, but 
that there is a biological basis for the belief that these types of 
feeling and behavior are intensified as the body assumes prepared- 
ness for the functions of race perpetuation.^ This takes us im- 
mediately into a consideration of growth. 



'Whipple, G. M. In Principles of Secondary Education (by P. Monroe, 
1914), p. 272. 



32 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE 

Measnrements show the rate of absolute growth, to be greatest 
at the time of birth, decreasing rather rapidly until about the 
ninth year for girls and the eleventh year for boys. With 
adolescence comes a marked increase in the rate of growth, reach- 
ing a maximum for boys at about the age of fourteen and for girls 
about two years earlier. After this the rate of growth decreases 
rather rapidly until the approximate age of twenty for males and 
seventeen for females. There is a correlation in height, weight, 
and lung capacity, although the parts and organs of the body do 
not grow at an equal rate, but develop rather independently of 
each other. There is an extraordinary range of individual differ- 
ences during the period of years in which boys and girls as a class 
reach adolescence ; and a corresponding difference in anthropomet- 
ric measurements. Boaz draws the conclusions that during school 
age individual differences may be measured by a probable variabil- 
ity of about 2.5 years ; that individual differences in measurements 
and structural and functional traits are the greater, the more rapid 
the rate of development of growth ; that measurements of children 
of the same age represent individuals of different physical develop- 
ments; and that these differences are greater, the older the chil- 
dren.'* Baldwin found that at the age of fifteen the heaviest boy in 
his group weighed 110 pounds more than the lightest boy; and the 
heaviest girl 104 pounds more than the lightest girl. At the age of 
14 the tallest boy was 35 centimeters taller than the shortest boy 
and similar variations were found for girls.° 

With the period of adolescent acceleration comes a great in- 
crease in the gro-wth in bones and muscles. The change involves a 
lengthening, especially of long bones ; a thickening, through the ad- 
dition of new periosteal layers ; a change in constitution and pro- 
portion, and an advance in the process of ossification. The muscles, 
which form 27.2 per cent of the weight of the body at the age of 
eight, gi'ow proportionately more rapidly, so that at the age of sis- 
teen they form, 44.2 per cent of the weight. Bones and muscles 



^Boaz, F. Growth. Cyc. of Edu-c., vol. 3, pp. 187-190. 

^Baldwin, B. T. Physical growth and school progress. TJ. S. Bur. of Educ. 

Bull. Xo. 10, 1914. p. 16' 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 33 

together form about 72 per cent of the weight of the adult, so their 
increase is the chief factor in growth. This general increase is most 
readily seen in the curves of height and weight. 

This growth in the bony tissue and the increase in the relative 
percentage of the muscles, with other new bodily structures and 
probable changes in organs and functions, are accompanied by an 
extension of the circulatory system to meet these new demands. 
There is, however, another important change, in that the blood pres- 
sure is heightened. With the child the heart is relatively smaller and 
the arteries are relatively larger than with the adult, and hence 
the child's blood pressure is less. Burnham cites this to account 
for the fact that the child is able to endure violent physical activity 
for a short time only, while the adult is capable of more strenuous 
activity for a longer period ; and it leads him to conclude that cer- 
tain physical exercises such as long-distance running, should not be 
indulged in until the readjustment of the circulatory system is com- 
plete.^ 

At birth the relation of the heart to the arteries is as 25 to 20, 
at the beginning of puberty it is as 140 to 50, and in full maturity 
it is as 290 to 61. The capacity of the lungs increases noticeably 
during the period of adolescence, as is shown by chest measure- 
ments or by the spirometer. Measurements show that with girls 
the increase is most rapid from twelve to fourteen, and with boys 
from fourteen to sixteen. The rate of growth in both cases then de- 
creases until the final capacity is reached at the approximate age of 
20. There is also a period of strengthened vitality ; a marked in- 
crease in strength ; the voice changes ; there are changes in facial ex- 
pression ; and an augmentation in the length and width of the skull. 
Boys lose a certain amount of fat and become lean looking; girls 
less frequently so. In boys the joints and points for muscular at- 
tachment are more prominent; in girls there is a marked develop- 
ment of the pelvis. 

The brain grows little after the age of eight, and perhaps prac- 
tically completes its growth at the age of fourteen. As has already 
been shown in a quotation, at this age may come a "functional 



"Burnham, W. H. Unpublished Lectures, 1915-16. 



34 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

maturing of tracts hitherto dormant," and perhaps an ''extension 
and ramification of fiber processes already mature, particularly in 
the higher cortex. ' ' Burnham points out that the development of 
the nervous system is conditioned by that of the muscular system 
so that the development of the two go hand in hand J According 
to Hall, this is the age when attention should be given to the de- 
velopment of the large muscles of the legs, arms, and trunk, while 
finer coordinations should be left until a period when muscular and 
nervous adjustment is more complete. Pedagogically, this means 
the attempt to develop "skill of hand and eye" through fine mus- 
cular coordinations is wrong at the beginning of adolescence, for 
at this age attention should be given to the development of the basal 
muscles. Sufficient correlation should exist between industrial arts 
courses and physical training to insure such development.^ 

PSYCHICAL ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE 

Another aspect of adolescence possesses great importance: 
namely, the adolescent is mentally different from the preadolescent. 
Whipple saj^s: 

Compared to the relatively self -centered life of the child, the life of 
the adolescent is shot through with consciousness of self as related to other 
persons. His outlook is hetero -centric, not ego-centric. His behavior has 
constantly a social reference. He considers himself in relation to others. 
It needs no argument to show how important these social tendencies are from 
every point of view.' 

The actual manifestations of this social instinct are seen in a 
new tendency toward organization and association, and especially 
in what may be tenned the outlook on the world in general. Reac- 
tions are less spontaneous, but factors in a situation are interpreted 
according to their wider significance. For instance, the teacher's 
direction is sufficient in the case of immature children for the prep- 
aration of a lesson or to determine discipline ; these children do not 



'Burnham, W. H. Manual training, hygiene of. Cyc. of Educ, vol. 4, pp. 
127-128. 

*Hall, G. S., and Tanner, A. E. Adolescence. Cyc. of Educ, vol. 1, pp. 
29-44. 

"Whipple, G. M. In Prmciples of Secondary Education (edited by P. 
Monroe, 1914), p. 273. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 35 

see the connection between what they are told to do and anything 
outside of the school room. On the other hand, the mature student 
wants to know the value of the school work and its connection with 
adult life and vocation ; and he is disciplined more easily if he can 
see the justice of the rules he is asked to obey.^^ This accords with 
Hall's theory that the preadolescent years are most adapted to 
methods of drill ; while with the adolescent, subjects are best pre- 
sented in not too detailed a manner. Dewey believes a child first 
experiments to see what each step brings, and it is not until later — 
perhaps at the age of thirteen or fourteen — that he sees the larger 
connections of history or science.^ ^ 

The view that mind and body are not independent of each other 
is perhaps responsible in part for the belief that important changes 
in mental capacities as well as physical characteristics occur during 
the adolescent age. Conclusions reached and correlations drawn by 
different writers have not been entirely in agreement, although per- 
haps the majority confirm this view. Certain physical characteris- 
tics, such as weight, height, strength, girth of chest, etc., permit of 
definite measurement. But the methods for ascertaining mental 
characteristics have been so varied, and the factors involved so com- 
plex, that often valid grounds have been found for objection to the 
results found and conclusions drawn. Moreover, agreement as to 
method in these investigations might not end the matter. It is frank- 
ly admitted that we know little about the development of the nerv- 
ous system at this age, or the change in shape and size and chemical 
composition of the organs of the body. And it is likewise with the 
instincts. There are lists of instincts, but they differ one from an- 
other. It is generally agreed that instincts appear at different 
periods of life, but it is not agreed at what time they appear, 
whether some of them may appear suddenly or whether all of them 
appear gradually. At the present time mental tests have not been 
sufficiently developed to give us a precise and comprehensive 
knowledge of the mental traits of the adolescent as compared with 



^"Fifteenth Annual report of superintendent : Physical training and hygiene, 
New Yorlc City. p. 25. 

"Dewey, J. The psychology of the elementary school curriculum. The 
El. Sch. Becord, No. 9, 1900, pp. 221-232. 



36 THE FIFTEENTH YEASBOOK 

the preadolesceiit. Likewise, the various pedagogical scales we now 
have, are primarily measures of product and not of process, and 
may not be expected to bring out the intrinsic mental difference 
between the adolescent and the preadolescent. For instance, it 
might be expected that an arithmetic scale could indicate difference 
in adding ability (as denoted by the number of given reactions 
possible in a given time) between two pupils of the same age but 
of different degrees of maturity, but it can hardly be expected that 
the results of this test will tell much about the way in which each 
pupil connects his arithmetic with outside affairs. 

TIME OF ONSET OF PUBERTY 

Examination of tables proves that no very exact time can be 
taken for the advent of puberty. Observation shows it may occur 
any time between the ages of 12 and 17 in boys, and 11 and 16 in 
girls. A number of factors are operative in hastening or delaying 
this phenomenon. Children of one nationality or race may enter 
upon the period of pubescence earlier than those of another; and 
climate is also thought to be a determining factor. Studies made 
in Russia, Germany, England, and America demonstrate the fact 
that children from the so-called higher social strata mature earlier 
than children from the poorer classes. When pubescence is delayed 
the period of transition is shortened and with it the period of 
growth; and while in the latter case the rate of growth may be 
more rapid, it seems that total growth is not so great. Good 
hygienic conditions and health are favorable to growth and 
development. All growth curves show girls have their period 
of accelerated development about tv.^o years earlier than boys, and 
investigators agree girls mature about two years earlier. This is 
most important if the view is held that psychical changes are oc- 
curring at the same time. Children who are taller and heavier — 
both boys and girls — seem to mature at an earlier age than those 
who are not. 

Fewer data are at hand for the observation of this physical stage 
in the case of girls. Marro^^ observed the onset of puberty in 261 



^-T'able cited by Whipple, in Principles of Secondary Education p. 248. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 



37 



girls, and his table shows the advent of this function may be as 
early as the tenth year and as late as the twenty-first year. Bald- 
win^^ records first menstruation as early as the eleventh year and 
as late as 16 years and 7 months. 

Table 3, taken from Baldwin, indicates the appearance of 
pubescent changes in 1,241 girls.^* 

TABLE 3 
Eelation of Pttbescencb to Age in 1,241 Girls (Baldwin) 



Age 


No. Pre- 
pubescent 


Percentage 


No. 
Pubescent 


Percentage 


No. Post- 
pubescent 


Percentage 


6%-10 


149 
45 
27 
41 
18 
39 
17 
10 
10 
3 

' i 

1 
1 (22 yrs.) 


100 
93.75 

100 
78.84 
62.06 
58.20 
39.53 
15.15 
15.38 
44.83 

' 'i!55 
2.04 

" "ieo 


3 

io 
11 

16 

15 

25 

25 

11 

8 

5 

3 

2 


'6!25 

i9!23 

37.93 

23.88 

34.88 

37.87 

38.46 

17.74 

14.54 

7.81 

6.12 

3.17 


"i 

11 
31 
30 

48 
47 
58 
45 
61 
43 
193 
165 




10 %• 




11 




113^ 


1.92 


12 




12% 


17.91 


13 


25.58 


13% 


46.96 


14 


46.15 


14% 


77.42 


15 


85.45 


15% 


90.62 


16 


91.83 


16% 


96.83 


17 


100.00 


17-21% 


100.00 


22+ 


99.4 



Table 4, taken from Crampton, shows the per cent of imma- 
ture, or prepubescent ; maturing, or pubescent; and mature, or 
postpubescent boys out of a total of 4,800. 



TABLE 4 

Percentage of Bots at Given Stages of Pubescence (Crampton) 



12.5-13.0. 
13.0-13.5. 
13.5-14.0. 
14.0-14.5. 
14.5-15.0. 
15.0-15.5. 
15.5-16.0. 
16.0-16.5. 
16.5-17.0. 
17.0-17.5. 
17.5-18.0. 



Prepubescent 


Pubescent 


Postpubescent 


69 


25 


6 


55 


26 


18 


41 


28 


31 


26 


28 


46 


16 


24 


60 


9 


20 


70 


5 


10 


85 


2 


4 


93 


1 


4 


95 





2 


98 








100 



"Baldwin, B. T. Physical growth and school progress. U. S. Bur. of 
Educ. Bull. No. 10, 1914. p. 66. 

"Baldwin, B. T. A measuring scale for physical growth and physiological 
age. Fifteenth Yearbook of this Society, 1916. Part 1, pp. 11-12. 



38 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

As Crampton points out, this table demonstrates the fact that 
physiological and chronological age do not coincide. Also, "at 
characteristic ages, the mature are more than 33 per cent heavier, 
10 per cent taller, and 33 per cent stronger than the immature. "^^ 
Crampton says further: 

Eacli physiological age group eontains individuals vrlio vary much among 
themselves as to their real physiological age. For instance, the prepubescents 
are fifty-five per cent of the total number at the age of 13.25 years. Some 
of these, fourteen per cent of all that age, will become pubescent within a 
half year; others, one per cent of all, will not become pubescent until 16.75 
years of age. This one per cent is, therefore, three years younger physiologi- 
cally than the fourteen per cent. In a similar manner, the individuals in the 
postpubescent groups vary as to the number of years elapsed since they have 
passed through pubescence.^" 

CEITEEIA FOE JUDGING ONSET OF MATUEITY 

Measurements of height, weight, strength and vital indices 
when compared with certain physiological changes, notably in the 
sex organs, have led certain investigators to the opinion that 
height, weight, strength, and vital indices may be taken as criteria 
for the onset of maturity. Foster, for instance, believes height 
alone may be used as a criterion for classification according to 
physiological age;^'^ and Baldwin thinks height and weight appear 
to offer excellent objective standards for determining maturity for 
both boys and girls.^^ Crampton, who has done extensive work 
in this field, when classifying boys with whom it was inconvenient 
to employ the method of direct examination, used the following 
procedure : 

The boys formed a. line and passed in review, each stating his age to the 
examiner. He was then given a number — one was most mature, five least. 
The following signs were noted: The voice (changed and low or unchanged 



^'Crampton, C. W. AnaLomical or physiological age versus chronological 
age. Fed. 'Sem., 15 : 1908, 230-237. 

^"Crampton, C. W. Influence of phvsiological age on scholarship. Psych. 
Clinic, 1: 1907, 115-120. 

^Tester, W. L. Physiological age as a basis of classification of pupils 
entering high schools. Fsych. Clinic, 4: 1910, 83-88. 

^Baldwin, B. T. Phvsical growth and school progress. TJ. S. Bur. of Educ. 
Bull. No. 10,1914:. 215p. (bibl.). p. 67. 



TEE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 39 

and Mgli) ; the presence of the second molars ; height and weight ; the sub- 
cutaneous fat of the face and hands, i In the immature the subcutaneous fat 
is more evident and adheres closely to the skin, which is of finei-; texture; in 
the mature the skin is firmer and thicker, less attached to subcutaneous tissues, 
which contain less fat. The prepubescent is chubby, the postpubescent may be 

fat, but there is an easily recognizable difference The principal of 

the school, after witnessing the classification of three classes, designated the 
gradings for 20 boys, 18 of which were correct and 2 varied but one step.^* 

SCHOOL WOEK AND PUBESCENCE 

Porter, Baldwin, Christopher, and Smedley have concluded 
that large children are intellectually superior to small children; 
Gilbert found no evidence to warrant such a conclusion, while West 
and Foster found a negative correlation. After an examination 
of the basis for the conclusions of other investigators, Baldwin re- 
marks that "the important conclusion here was long ago antici- 
pated by Porter, but on account of the doubtful attitude of these 
other investigators toward his result, it has received little or no 
attention. He very wisely says, 'No child whose weight or height 
is below the average (median or norm) for its age should be per- 
mitted to enter a school grade beyond the average of its age except 
after such a physical examination as shall make it probable that the 
child's strength is equal to the strain.' "^o 

Thus, the weight of later and more careful studies seems to 
confirm the conclusion that larger children — and hence those matur- 
ing earlier — are intellectually superior to smaller children. In the 
light of the correlation found between good scholarship and physi- 
cal maturity, we may expect to find a large percentage of the 
mature pupils in the elementary grades inherently dull. A num- 
ber of experiments have thrown light upon this problem. 

Crampton's investigations lead him to the conclusion that 
there is a correlation between scholarship and pubescence. Thus, 
he found boys of a given age (14.75 years) in groups from the 
first to the fifth term in the high school. Of the boys in the first 
term, 57.1 per cent were mature, and of those in the fourth and 



^''Crampton, C. W. The significance of physiological age in education. 
Int. Cong, on Hyg. and Demog., 3 : 1912, 224-236. 
=°Baldwin, B. T. loc. cit., p. 90. 



40 TRE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

fifth terms 83.3 per cent were mature. A consideration of the num- 
ber of failures of boys within a certain age-group (13 years) 
showed 18 per cent of the mature failed of promotion, as compared 
with 27 per cent of those immature. Groups of boys aged 14 and 
15, respectively, showed similar results. Considered on the basis 
of success in school, the class work of the immature was poorer 
than that of the mature, as fifty per cent more of the former than 
of the latter failed.^i 

The results of Baldwin's investigation agree in many particu- 
lars with Crampton's. His records show children of accelerated 
physiological development completing the last grade of the ele- 
mentary school at the age of 12 years, 9 5-6 months, with an aver- 
age of 84.35; and those of retarded physical development at the 
age of 13 years, 7- 3-4 months, with an average of 81.72. He con- 
cludes that if pedagogical age be accepted as a fair equivalent to 
mental development, "the tall, heavy boys and girls with good 
lung-capacity are older physiologically and further along in their 
stages toward mental maturity as evidenced by school progress 
than short, light boys and girls. ' '-^ 

Stewart studied the physical growth and school standing of 
207 boys over a period of years. When he considered the individual 
curves and correlations, together with the size of the boy at 14 
years of age and his stage of development, the indications were that 
the tall or heavy boys of early development ranked better than tall 
or heavy boys of late development, and that light boys of late 
development ranlced better than light boys of early or medium 
development. ' ' Boys of medium size or medium period of develop- 
ment are hard to classify, though a majority of them appear to be 
doing school work of medium rank. ' '^2" 

An investigation v/as made in the New York City elementary 
schools to determine the quality of school work these average pupils 
were doing. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades pupils who 



"Crampton, C. W. Influence of physiological age on scholarship. Psych. 
Clime, 1: 1907, 115-120. 

=^Baldwin, B. W, loc. cit., p. 96. 
^^ Stewart, S. F. A study of physical growth and school standing of boys. 
Jour, of Educ. Psych., 7 : 1916, 414-426. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 41 

were making poor marks were on the average 37, 40, and 46 per 
cent, respectively, more advanced than those doing satisfactory- 
work. As a result of this investigation, it was recommended that 
* ' children who mature in the lower grammar grades be given the 
opportunity to obtain such form of instruction in the elementary 
school as will directly prepare them for immediately taking part 
in active life. ' '^^ 

One hundred and fourteen classes in seven elementary schools 
in New York were arranged in physiological age-groups. In reply 
to a questionnaire, most of the teachers expressed themselves as 
favoring the segregation. They were practically unanimous in re- 
porting a more unified class consciousness, which was advan- 
tageous to discipline. Further results, as indicated by the replies 
of the teachers, showed the mature were 'slower' than the imma- 
ture; that both groups worked better when segregated; and that 
the approach to the subject-matter was different for the immature 
and the mature.^^ 

King studied a group of 272 children between the ages of 10.5 
and 17 to ascertain the correlation between maturity and scholar- 
ship as shown by marks, first classifying them without reference 
to chronological age into three groups: immature, maturing, and 
mature. This classification showed that both boys and girls in the 
immature stage ranked higher than those maturing or mature. 
When he compared the marks of children of the same age but dif- 
ferent degrees of maturity, he found the reverse to be true. He 
says :25 

While the number of easesi is too small to furnish conclusive evidence, it 
points, in general, to this conclusion: The children of advanced development 
in these years are superior in scholarship to those who are less fully developed. 

Foster classified 295 boys of an entering class of a New York 
City high school into eight sections according to physiological age 
based upon pubescence. These he compared with reference to dis- 



^^Crampton, C. W. Anatomical or physiological age versus chronological 
age. Fed. Sem., 15: 1908, 230-237. 

^From the Fifteenth annual report, physical training and hygiene, New 
York City, 1912-13, pp. 24-26. 

=°King, I. The High-School Age. 1914, 235 p. (p. 53.) 



42 TRi: FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

charges, failures, and promotions, with 149 other boys grouped 
into four divisions. Another group of 18 boys, classified indiscrim- 
inately, furnished a further basis of comparison. 
Foster says i^*^- 

Eeeords of smaller boys * * * * show fev.er discharges, fewer failures, 
and more promotions. In fact, the four classes of the smallest boys average 
almost 20 per cent more promotions than the classes of largest boys. This 
apparently bad showing of the larger boys is to be explained by the fact that 
many of them have been delayed in their progress at school or by circumstances 
at home. Going to work is usually out of the question for a small boy, and in 
social affairs and in athletics he is not at all successful. The influences that 
tempt the big fellow to neglect school duties do not have the same force against 
the smaller boy. 

The marked difference seems to be in the matter of discharges. May this 
difference not be due to the grouping of the boys of the same development 
making work so much more enjoyable that they do not have the same inclina- 
tion to leave school? 

Basing his judgment on Crampton's tables, Johnson estimates 
45 per cent more pubescent and adolescent boys are found in the 
Cleveland elementary schools than in the high schools. Johnson's 
immediate concern in this instance was with recreation, and from 
the foregoing deduction he asserts that to confine adolescent games 
to the high school is an inconsistency in the administration of edu- 
cational opportunities, for the need of such games is at least as great 
in the elementary schools. Again, the "practice in hardy games 
.ought to be before the age when the most pupils enter the high 
school. The prepubescent years from 10 to 12 are, for the majority 
of boys, especially favorable for the beginning of athletic interest 
and skill. If participation is delayed beyond the elementary school 
period, sufficient interest and skill for personal participation in 
later years are far less likely to be developed. "^'^ 

Although the significance of physiological age is not recognized 
as some investigators think it should be in the actual treatment of 
children, attention has been called from time to time to its impor- 
tance. Dr. Meylan, of Columbia University, writes (in a personal 



=«Foster, W. L. loc. cit., pp. 83-88. 

-■'Johnson, G. E. Education through recreation. Cleveland Survey Foun- 
dation, pp. 34-35. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 43 

letter) that in connection with his work with boys he has adopted 
for grouping for athletic contests four factors : Chronological age, 
physiological age, height, and weight; and that he has found 
physiological age absolutely essential in grouping for competition 
not only in athletic and aquatic sports but also in such subjects 
as nature-study, camp-craft, book reading, rifle shooting, and man- 
ual training. His experience leads him to believe that the factor 
of physiological age should be given much consideration by school 
teachers and superintendents in all phases of work. 

P. Tecumseh Sherman, in his report as commissioner of labor, 
New York State, 1907, says that "there should be added to our 
law a requirement of a fixed minimum standard of physical de- 
velopment as a condition to granting a certificate of fitness to work 
in a factory." The National Education Association recommended 
in 1911, that child labor laws be so modified as to recognize the dif- 
ference between the chronological age of a child and his maturity, 
and that the school-age limit should be determined not by the fact 
that the child has reached the age of 14 or 16, but by ''physio- 
psychological data corresponding to the normal standard for the 
age limits required by the law. All children or persons failing to 
meet such maturity tests at the extreme school-age limit should re- 
main under public supervision and control, either until they reach 
maturity or permanently." The committee on medical inspection 
of schools of the American Medical Association recommended that 
physical and developmental examinations should be sufiiciently ex- 
tensive to determine, as far as possible, the cause of arrested mental 
and physical growth; and that these data, taken in connection 
with the curriculum of the school and the sociological factors of 
the pupils' environment, "should form the essential basis for the 
adjustment of educational activities, both physical and mental, to 
meet the requirements of physical and mental health, growth, and 
development. ' '^^ 

As a result of extensive experiments, Crampton recommends : 

Where mature and immature children are now brought together in the 
same class in the elementary or high school, they should be separated into 



^^Instances cited by Crampton. Int. Cong, on Hyg. and Demog., 3 : 1912, 
224-236. 



44 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

different classes, so that the pedagogical, ethical and social treatment to which 
they are subjected may be better adapted to their disparate and distinct 
requirements and abilities. 

Child-labor legislation should be based upon physiological age. 

All observations, records and investigations of children, and all treatment 
of children, whether pedagogical or medical, social or ethical, must regard 
physiological age as a primary and fundamental basis.^ 

SEGREGATION OF THE SEXES IN THE SCHOOL 

Whether girls and boys ought to be educated in the same 
classes should probably depend upon: (1) Whether the two sexes 
need training so different as to call for separate classes; and (2) 
whether the mental and physical characteristics of the sexes are 
so different as to necessitate separation in instruction. The first 
principle involves the discussion of curricula, but it may be pointed 
out that there are certain subjects where co-instruction can hardly 
be given. Thus, in many of the subjects given in industrial 
arts curricula, and in physical training, the sexes cannot be handled 
together. In social or civic education the content may be the same 
in some particulars and different in others, while in the so-called 
classical subjects the content might be the same.^^ 

According to Hall, boys and girls of the early adolescent age 
tend naturally to separate, for at least a few years and the family 
and home recognize this tendency. At the age of twelve or fourteen, 
brothers and sisters develop a life rather independent of each other, 
with different interests, home occupations, and games. This he 
believes to be natural and biological. It is often asserted, also, 
that boys do not like to enter into competition in school studies 
with girls at this age, perhaps because they recognize that girls 
excel them. Observations show ill health to be much more preva- 
lent among girls than boys during the pubertal period and for 
the time immediately following, owing to the greater physiological 
change through which girls pass. Consideration of this point 
leads Burgerstein to believe that when curricula are heavy, it may 
be more healthful to present only a part of the studies in co-edu- 



"Crampton, C. "W. Anatomical or phvsiological age versus chronological 
age. Fed. Sem., 15: 1908, 230-237. 

""Snedden, D, and Henderson, E. N. Co-education. Monroe 's Cyc. of Edv.c, 
vol. 2, pp. 43-46. 



\ 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 45 

cational classes, and to arrange the curricula in such a way as to 
take account of the different physical resistance of the two sexes 
as well as their different mental ability, for with boys the period 
immediately preceding puberty is of minor resistance, while with 
girls it is the period of development itself and the years immediate- 
ly following. He also notes that after the pubertal development 
girls surpass boys of the same age in class work.^^ Other writers 
have asked whether the health of girls may not be permanently im- 
paired through too close devotion to the program of studies at this 
age. 

As we have seen, girls mature on the average two years earlier 
than boys. Whether mental change be sudden or gradual, the 
maturity of the average girl of fourteen would seem to be sufficient- 
ly in advance of the maturity of the average boy of the same age 
to possess real significance educationally. If the theory that mature 
children require a different treatment from the immature is valid, 
it can be concluded that a certain amount of segregation will be 
desirable. 

A noteworthy experiment in "limited" segregation was under- 
taken by Principal Armstrong in the Englewood school in Chicago. 
While he would not have boys and girls attend separate schools, 
the results of this experiment lead him to believe that limited segre- 
gation is desirable. He says segregation during the first and sec- 
ond years of the high school — ninth and tenth years — holds more 
boys in school, greatly improves their scholarship, and removes 
from them the feeling of unfair comparisons due to difference in 
degree of maturity of children of the same age but of opposite 
sex ; while the possibility of adapting the work to the needs of each 
sex makes it easier to train for a higher degree of efficiency. A 
large majority of the teachers, practically all of the boys and a 
majority of the girls favored segregation; while the vote of the 
parents stood two to one in favor of the plan, with 90 per cent of 
the parents of the segregated children voting favorably.32 



"Burgerstein, L. Hygiene of co-education. Monroe's Cyc. of Educ, vol. 
1, pp. 652-655. 

^'Armstrong, J. E. Limited segregation. Sch. Bev. 14: 1906, 726-738. 
Advantages of limited segregation in the high school. Sch. Bev., 18: 1910, 
339-350. 



f 



46 TRE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

ADMISSION TO THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 

The problem before tbe superintendent or principal with re- 
gard to classification of pupils reduces itself to these questions : (1) 
Who shall be admitted to the junior high school; and (2) how shall 
those admitted be classified? The answers to both these questions 
may perhaps be summed up under two heads: (1) working ability, 
and (2) instruction needed. These would include the health of 
the pupil ; his natural capacity and interest ; the probable time to 
be devoted to school work; and his command of the English 
language. 

At the present time the majority of superintendents require 
the pupil to ''complete the preceding grade" before he is admJtted 
to the junior high school. There is something in this phrase which 
implies a certain amount of work that a pupil is required to com- 
plete in one grade before he is judged able to do the work of the 
next; and it also implies, that, if he has not done this work, he 
is not able, or at least he is not to be allowed, to attempt the work 
of the next grade. Against this proposition may be advanced the 
argument that working ability does not depend wholly upon work 
previously done or the amount of information acquired. Com- 
plaints of 'lack of preparedness' made by teachers from the col- 
lege down, show that much of the required knowledge, power, or 
skill, as the case may be, has either never been acquired where it 
is supposed to have been or that it has been lost by the student. 
This point also involves a consideration of the psychological 
versus the logical method of apportioning subject matter. Fur- 
ther, results of tests in arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, etc., show 
that pupils in a single grade may vary in ability to the extent that 
a third may represent the average ability of the grade below, and 
perhaps a third represent the ability of the grade above. Finally, 
the majority of the arguments used against entrance examinations 
for the high school and college may be used here against requiring 
a pupil to ' ' complete the work ' ' of one grade before he is admitted 
to the next. 

Examination of tables of the distribution of children by age 
and grade shows that in any school system we may expect to find 



TRE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 47 

pupils who, assuming maturity at the average age, have been ma- 
ture for one or more years before they are admitted even to the 
seventh grade. An extreme case was found in Portland, Ore., 
where the survey brought to light the fact that in the first six 
grades the children ranged from six to nineteen years in age, while 
in one grade was found a range of eleven years and in other grades 
a range of from one to ten or fourteen years. From this it was 
judged that an age-range of five years or more would be found in 
any grade from the first on, since no measures were taken in 
Portland to segregate pupils on account of age.^s Pupils who have 
matured before they have reached the junior high school may be 
normal mentally, but retarded through ill health or absence from 
school, or they may be retarded because below normal mentally. 
In either case they can hardly profit much from instruction adapted 
to children chronologically and physiologically years younger than 
they. Moreover, these older pupils tend to be rapidly eliminated. 
In inaugurating changes in the classification and treatment 
of children of the junior high school, two things must be considered. 
First, unless the child's previous experience is ignored, there will 
always be a factor which will make for moderation in the transition 
from methods employed in the first six grades to those to be em- 
ployed later on. In other words, methods to which the pupil has 
become accustomed in the lower grades cannot be ignored by those 
organizing the junior high school. Second, as Inglis has shown, the 
organization of the junior high school will be substantially the same 
whether the saltatory or the gradual theory of development be 
accepted. In the first instance the variability of the time at which 
pupils arrive at pubescence would prohibit a radical change of 
method to correspond with accompanying psychical changes. Inglis 
says: 

The gap between the last grade of the elementary school and the first 
grade of the high school as; our system is at present organized is great and 
the readjustment which faces the boy or girl when transferred into the high 
school is tremendous. It is one of the principal aims of the reorganization of 
our system of education to eliminate that gap, to facilitate the necessary ad- 



^Eeport of the survey of the public-school system of school district No. 1, 
Multnomah County, Oregon. City of Portland, 1913. Chapt. 9. 



48 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

justment, and to ameliorate the articulation between elementary and secondary 
education. * * * * If we adopt the theory of gradual development with refer- 
ence to mental traits, we must recognize that our school system should be so 
organized that from the first grade of the elementary school to the last grade 
of the high school the change for the pupils will be gradual and without points 
of abrupt transition, without sharply differentiated administrative divisions, 
and without radical changes in materials and methods at any one stage. If 
we adopt the theory of saltatory development, we are forced to the same con- 
clusion because of the variability found at any one stage and because of the 
distribution of pupils throughout the grades.'* 

PRESENT REQUIEEMENTS OF ADMISSION 

In response to the question: " Upon what do you make 
entrance to the junior high school depend?", 68 out of 94 
replies mention nothing more than "promotion", "completion" 
or "satisfactory completion" of the preceding grade. In this 
connection it is interesting to note that the California state 
law provides that the "high-school board of any high-school dis- 
trict or the trustees of any high school, may prescribe intermediate 
school courses, and admit thereto pupils who have completed the 
sixth year of the elementary school ; ' ' and that the school systems 
of California uniformly have this requirement.^^ A similar situa- 
tion is found in Vermont. 

Four other schools admit upon recommendation of the teacher 
or principal; four others consider primarily the child's ability to 
carry the work; and one makes no special requirement. Eighteen 
additional systems mention specifically that they admit "big" boys 
and girls, "over-age" pupils, "mature" pupils, or pupils who are 
"out of place" in the elementary school, whether they have com- 
pleted the elementary course or not. Four of this latter class have 
exceptionally liberal entrance requirements. At Lafayette, Ind- 
iana, a pupil is admitted if he possesses the "ability to compute the 
form processes in arithmetic; ability to read intelligently; and 
ability to write well." At the Wisconsin High School the "re- 
quirements for admission to the sixth class [corresponding to the 



^Inglis, A. J. A fundamental problem in the reorganization of the high 
school. Sell. Bev., 23: 1915, 307-318. 

^School Law of California, 1915, p. 152. Italics are the author 's. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 49 

seventh grade] are "(a) ability to read, write, and speak simple 
English with reasonable ease and accuracy, (h) good health, (c) 
twelve years of age. (Applicants under twelve years of age will 
receive special attention, and if they show a mental age of twelve 
years or above, they may be admitted)." Solvay, New 
York, has essentially the same requirements, save that 
mature pupils are admitted from the elementary school — a depart- 
ment not maintained in connection with the Wisconsin High 
School. In Cincinnati admission depends upon "age, schooling, 
interest of the child, and recommendation of the principal." 

A number of cities have segregated classes because different 
curricula are being planned for the sexes ; three have tried segrega- 
tion for psychological reasons, but find no advantage accruing 
theref rom ;2'^ one would have segregation if the school v^ere large 
enough; three schools will try some experiments in segregation;^'^ 
six maintain separate classes for the sexes in whole or in partj^s 
of which three are convinced that segregation has special advan- 
tages for pupils of this age. Two places have groups classified 
according to physiological age^^ (See Appendix, Section 3). 

SUMMAET 

A consideration of the mental and physical qualities of the 
adolescent points toward the following tentative conclusions: 

1. There is psychological justification for the claim that edu- 
cational practice should differ both in content and method for the 
pupil of the adolescent stage as compared with the pupil of the 
preadolescent stage. 

2. Physical mental maturity, for which chronological age can 
not be taken as a criterion, should play an important part both 
in classification as to grade and group within the grade. 

3. Since girls mature on the average two years earlier than 
boys, and since the changes through which the girl passes at this 

^'^Chanute, Kan.; Houston, Tex.; Eichmond, lud. Eiclimond has found it 
advantageous to separate the sexes in assembly. 

^"Evansville, Ind. ; Saginaw, Mich. ; Paducah, Ky. 

^^Santa Eosa, CaL; Santa Ana, Cal. ; Eoanoke, Va. ; Brookings, N. D.; 
Trenton, N. J.; Eochester, Minn. 

'^Lafayette and Evansville, Ind. 



50 TBE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

stage are by no means parallel with those of the boy, a certain 
amount of segregation will be required for psy(;hologieal and hy- 
gienic reasons, as well as for more utilitarian purposes. 

4. Boys and girls who are clearly mature should not be kept 
in elementary classes with children who are physiologically young- 
er, but they should be advanced to the instruction of the inter- 
mediate stage, whether they have completed the work of the pre- 
ceding grades or not. It is the duty of the junior high school to 
provide suitable instruction for such pupils. 

5. On account of the great variability in chronological age at 
Avhich pupils arrive at maturity, methods of instruction should not 
be radically changed, even when the saltatory theory of mental de- 
velopment is held. Such a change in methods could be seriously 
considered only if pupils were grouped according to physiological 
and psychological development. 

6. Previous methods of instruction to which the pupil has 
been accustomed should be a governing factor in the formulation 
of miethods of instruction for the junior high school. 

7. Further experimentation in segregation as to sex and 
grouping as to physiological age is needed. These plans, if demon- 
strated to be valuable, could be introduced into many high schools. 



CHAPTER III 

THE CURRICULUM 

GENERAL PROBLEMS 

The educational aims of the junior high school are dependent 
upon those of the complete educational system, of which it is one 
unit. Educational aims are commonly stated in terms of social 
efficiency and individual development. Differences in regard to 
the formulation of the junior-high-sehool curriculum arise accord- 
ing to the way these aims are interpreted, defined, or stressed ; and 
according to the system of educational psychology the interpreter 
has formulated. The main controversy relates to industrial educa- 
tion and the differentiation of curricula. To some, the industrial 
activities of a community indicate that curricula paralleling them 
are to be offered in the junior high school because its students are 
soon to earn their livelihood in the industries ; to others, community'" 
activities determine the curricula because they afford the real basis 
of instruction, or, in other words, because the pupil's potential 
knowledge or ideas have been formed and will be formed from his 
interaction with his environment. Still others believe that a cer- 
tain amount of knowledge should be the common property of all, 
and that it is the duty of the schools to define these elements of 
knowledge and incorporate them in the curriculum. To the first 
group, a certain amount of skill is necessary for utilitarian pur- 
poses ; to the second, skill or specific habits are entirely subservient 
to the educative process ; to the third, specific habits are subsei^ient 
to the acquisition of certain essential elements of knowledge or 
constants. Each of these three points of view includes the others 
to a degree determined by the amount of emphasis given to the 
particular point of view, to the educational psychology of the 
theorist, and to his general philosophy of education. 

Democracy in education is a popular theme. For some, it 
means that the school shall give each child a maximal individual 

51 



52 THE FIFTEENTH YEAEBOOE 

development according to his ability and interests. These educa- 
tors often accuse the high school of having ministered to the needs 
of a selected group only and declare that it must now minister 
to the needs of any and all. For others, democracy means unifi- 
cation; our common problems of life and government will be bet- 
ter met and handled by those who have learned to reason, and who 
have been impressed by the duty they owe to the nation and to 
society. While these educators are somewhat satisfied with the past 
accomplishments of the schools, they nevertheless recognize the 
necessity of reorganizing the present school system. Their chief 
concern, however, is with the content of the curriculum. A third 
group of writers makes more or less successful attempts at reconcil- 
ing these two attitudes. 

Such divergent views naturally entail controversy when a re- 
adaption of the curriculum, is undertaken. It is agreed that the 
schools should give the best preparation for life. But is this prep- 
aration best given by making the schools train somewhat specifi- 
cally along lines indicated by social and industrial demands — a con- 
ception which requires separate curricula and perhaps separate 
schools; or is it best given by a curriculum built upon social de- 
mands, but which develops skill in industry only to the extent that 
it facilitates the advance of the educative process? The former 
plan implies less and the latter more differentiation according to 
individual tastes and capacities. Or, again, would not an indi- 
vidual be better fitted for life if he were to master those common 
elements of knowledge that may be proved to be worth while, and 
can not these be better presented in a common curriculum? In- 
deed, if we agree that it is the function of the junior high school 
to give this stock of common knowledge, does this not mean that 
pupils will be engaged in the same work, and that there will be but 
little differentiation as a consequence? 

Snedden defines vocational education as that education which 
trains the individual to be an effective producer, and cultural edu- 
cation as that education which trains the individual to be the best 
consumer. In this sense he makes production along any line — pro- 
fessional, artistic, spiritual, or economic — the result of vocational 
education, while in the expenditure of leisure, in reading papers, 



TKE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 53 

magazines, and books, and in the appreciation of art or music, or 
in the consumption of food, cultural education would function. 

"Vocational education differs from general, or liberal, education funda- 
mentally as regards its essential aims, and that, therefore, it will differ also, 
fundamentally, as regards the means and methods of instruction, as well as 
the administrative agencies which are intimately related to means and 
methods of instruction. It is further contended that vocational education 
and liberal education cannot be effectively carried on, so far as regards a 
given group of pupils, in a way which permits of a considerable blending 
of the unlike types of instruction. To attempt this is to defeat th« aims 
both of liberal and of vocational training. One of the essential conditions 
of genuine efficiency in either liberal or vocational education is a consid- 
erable degree of concentration on the part of the pupil on the one type or 
the other, so far as regards the expenditure of this time and energy in 
any given time. ' '* 

Snedden makes essentially the same distinction for the sub- 
jects of the junior high school. In discussing ' ' courses for youths 
of 12 to 14 years of age ' ' he sees two prime factors that will make 
for a wider latitude in making individual programs of study: 
(1) ''the number and variety of subjects of training and instruc- 
tion;" and (2) the ''variability of the educational needs." He 
then classifies school subjects into two types, and says that "the 
conspicuous result expected in the case of the alpha type is ability 
to do, to express in action, while the most tangible result expected 
in the case of the beta type is appreciation or, in one sense of the 
words, interest. " In a suggested curriculum he indicates that some 
of the subjects will be predominately "alpha," some predomi- 
nately "beta;" and some either "alpha" or "beta," depending 
upon the student. The basis for both positive and negative pro- 
scription of subjects will be natural endowment — the requirement 
that the pupil receive instruction and training necessary or great- 
ly advantageous to him in after life— and social demands. "A 
heavy burden rests upon authorities to establish the presumption 
that it is better that these proscriptions should thus be made than 
that each pupil, subject to the general requirement that he must 



^Snedden, D., and Bagley, W. C. Fundamental distinctions between liberal 
and vocational education. Proc. N, E. A., 1914, 152-3. 

Snedden also makes this distinction in his Problems in Educational Read- 
justment, p. 115. 



54 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

employ all of Ms school time profitably, shall freely elect his own 
course. ' '^ 

Bagley does not agree with this distinction between liberal 
and vocational education. He believes it is really the old one of 
education for leisure and education for work. He points out that 
an individual does not produce for a certain period, and then con- 
sume for another period, but as a producer an individual is also 
a consumer. Certain funda,mental activities, he says, cannot be 
classified either as predominately productive or as predominately 
consumptive, while certain essential facts are neither productive 
nor consumptive.^ 

With regard to vocational education, Dewey holds that the guid- 
ing aim must be first of all to keep youth under educative influ- 
ences for a longer time. Gary, Chicago, and Cincinnati, have 
shown that the best way to reduce elimination is to make instruc- 
tion significant to pupils. But "in these places the aim has not 
been to turn the schools into preliminary factories supported at 
public expense, but to borrow from shops the resources and motives 
which make teaching more effective and wider in reach." "In the 
second place, the aim must be efficiency of industrial intelligence, 
rather than trade efficiency." Providing skilled workers, even in 
superior crafts, is not the chief problem. Extreme specialization 
in manufacturing processes, automatic machinery, the rapid change 
by means of inventions of the forms of machine industry, the ex- 
treme mobility of the laboring population, and the fact that 95 
per cent of the labor employed in the construction of such a compli- 
cated machine as the automobile, are facts that ' ' cry aloud against 
any trade training that is not an integral part of a more general 
plan of industrial education. They speak for the necessity of an 
education whose chief purpose is to develop initiative and personal 
resources of intelligence." The preparation of skilled laborers for 
the trades that we have today would, moreover, tend to keep the 
present industrial regime as it is, and would not tend to work any 



^Snedden, D. The cliaraetei* and extent of desirable flexibility as to 
courses of instruction and training for youths of 12 to 14 years of age. Educ. 
Ad. and Super., 2 : 1916, 219-234. 

^Bagley, W. C. Fundamental distinctions between liberal and vocational 
education. Froc. N. E. A., 1914, p. 164. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 55 

change, which is highly desirable.'* Nor is it altogether true that 
definite trade training would always mean competency for self- 
support. One of the causes of incompetency and poverty lies in 
the fact that individuals have been educated to only a special line 
of activity, which is transformed or even eliminated by social 
progress.^ 

Dewey states his position with reference to the dual system of 
control of the vocational and the regular school system in no un- 
mistakable terms. He opposed the proposed Indiana legislation 
and the Cooley bill on the following grounds :^ It will produce 
class stratification, because there will be a segregation of the chil- 
dren of the more well-to-do families of the community from those 
children who will presumably earn their own living by working 
for wages in manual and commercial employments. But this is 
not all. These schools were to be established entirely separate from 
the present educational system, directed and taught by a different 
body of administrators and teachers, and receiving their support 
directly from the state. Dewey asks if any sound reasons could be 
advanced against further administrative segregations in behalf of 
religious creeds or foreigners, if commercial bodies and employers 
of labor were to procure a state supported system of schools in their 
own behalf. Not that all the employers are seeking their own ends, 
but that those who are doing so do not realize that there will be 
a tendency towards class stratification. Again, in the wide-spread 
educational adjustment taking place at present, an attempt is al- 
ready being made to add to the curriculum certain subjects of the 
vocational type. If two types of schools should be established, the 
result would be a duplication of facilities, with added expense- 
the forces effecting a re-adaptation of the traditional curriculum 
of the elementary and high school to meet the change of social con- 
ditions, would be driven into a narrow channel, while the old cur- 
riculum would be "left frozen in its narrow form." 



*Dewey, J. A policy of industrial education. Man. Tr. and Voc. Edxic, 
16 : 1915, 393-397. Published also in The New Bep., 2 : 1914, 11-12. 

=*Dewey, J. Philosophy of education. Monroe's Cyc. of Educ, vol. 4, pp. 
697-703. 

^Dewey, J. Industrial education. A wrong kind. The New Bep., 2 : 1915, 
71-73. Splitting up the school system, Hid., 283-284. 



56 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

Snedden and Dewey are not at agreement at this point J To 
Snedden's mind, the question of unit or dual control is not funda- 
mental, but rather the question: "what constitutes sound peda- 
gogic theories as to the aims and methods suited to vocational edu- 
cation in schools, and secondly, the most effective organization and 
administration of the means designed to realize them." It has 
been shown that Snedden draws a distinction between vocational 
and liberal, or cultural, education, and believes these two forms of 
education cannot well be carried on together. Social and economic 
conditions, he adds, make evident the need of vocational training, 
since only a few of the industries are so organized that they can 
give a good vocational training. Moreover, schoolmen, however 
well intentioned, are apt to be impractical and fail to appreciate 
actual conditions. Three distinct conditions are necessary if this 
form of education is to be effective: practical participation in pro- 
ductive work; technical studies related to productive work; and 
general vocational studies designed to promote the vocational 
branches. Teachers must be masters of the trade or calling they are 
teaching,^ for experience has taught us the ordinary school man has 
inadequate ideas concerning vocations and is incompetent to teach 
them. Therefore, he reluctantly concludes, if we are to have voca- 
tional education for the rank and file of the youth as well as for 
the favored classes, we must supply special schools for this purpose. 

In reply, Dewey says Snedden should define what he means 
by vocational education. He himself believes vocational education 
does not mean the "identification of education with acquisition of 
specialized habits in the management of machines at the expense 
of an industrial intelligence based on science and a knowledge of 
social problems and conditions." Vocational education has as its 
supreme regard the development of such intelligent initiative, 
ingenuity and executive capacity as shall make workers, as far as 
possible, the masters of their own industrial fate. 

The "demands of society," as far as trade training is con- 
cerned, are formulated by the representatives of the different in- 



'Snedden, D. Vocational education. The New Sep., S: 1915,40-42. 
Dewey, J. Education vs. trade training. The New Eep., 3 : 1915, 42-43. 
^Snedden, D. Proilems in Educational Beadjustment. Ch. 8. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 57 

dustries. This is recognized by educators who discuss vocational 
training for the public schools. In this connection, it is interesting 
to note the attitude taken by some of the leading corporation 
schools. Steinmetz, for example, calls the corporation school a con- 
tinuation school" and says that, since its success is dependent upon 
the character of public-school pupils, the period of general educa- 
tion should be lengthened rather than shortened. He would have 
such subjects as manual training taught for educative and recrea- 
tive value and as means of physical development, but stands 
squarely against the extreme utilitarianism which some would bring 
into the public schools. He says: "Vocational training, as exten- 
sion work after graduation from general education, is necessary 
to retain our industrial advantage. But instruction in the trades, 
vocational training in the grades, is, in my opinion, vicious and 
should be opposed."^ 

According to the literature on corporation schools it would seem 
that his view is fairly representative. Furthermore, it is the policy 
of some of these schools to train not only in specific trade habits, 
but to introduce academic and ''cultural" subjects as well. 

Bagley attacks the problem from the side of democracy or 
social solidarity. A high level of common ideas — which are the im- 
plements or means of thought — "is essential to collective thinking 
on a high plane," and the "efficiency of a democracy is directly de- 
pendent upon the number of ideas that are common to all the 
members of the democratic group." An evaluation should be made 
of the elements of the different subjects, such as history or arith- 
metic, in order that the most valuable will be taught; and there 
should also be enough uniformity to enable all pupils to acquire 
these common elements. Social solidarity can best be insured if 
the schools devote their efforts toward the elevation of the general 
level of common intelligence, which is ' ' pretty clearly indicated by 
the extent of the common elements in the school program."^" He 



^Steinmetz, C. P. The relation of tlie corporation school to the public 
schools. Nat. Assn. of Corporation Schools, Bept. of first annual convention, 
Dayton, 1913, pp. 297-301. 

"Bagley, W. C. The justification of a certain measure of uniformity. 
Univ. of III. Sch. of Educ. Bull No. 13, 1914, 12-21. 



58 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

calls the doctrines of freedom, interest and spontaneity, "indis- 
pensible ingredients" of an "effective educational theory." They 
must, however, ''be supplemented by the more virile virtues of 
duty and of effort and of sacrifice." He stresses effort as neces- 
sary to mental growth, accuracy and thoroughness as funda- 
mentals, and order and sequence as essentials to mental mastery.^ ^ 
He says with regard to individual differences that all children 
cannot be put through the same "educational mill," but be- 
lieves that, until more study is given to the evaluation of the pres- 
ent curriculum, we will not be in position to say with any cer- 
tainty just how much differentiation should be made.^^ \^^ ^ny 
event, "if ever a country should adopt the policy of an iron edu- 
cation, it is our country at this time."^^ 

This view led Bagley to make a vigorous objection to the cur- 
ricula outlined by Ayres in the Springfield survey, which pro- 
vided for differentiation beginning with the seventh grade. He 
questioned Ayres' interpretation and comparison of European 
educational systems, and asserted that social stratification similar 
to that in Europe would result from a differentiation such as out- 
lined by him.^* 

This challenge elicited from Judd a reply as vigorous. With 
regard to the European situation, he stated that the psychological 
and pedagogical considerations underlying their schools are not 
fundamentally different from those with which we have to deal.^^ 
Psychologically, the essential consideration is that the twelve-year- 
old is in the first "flush of adolescence" — he begins to have indi- 
viduality, to look upon a larger world, and to consider his duty 
to himself and society. Moreover, he will be half through ado- 
lescence at the age of fourteen or fifteen, and we must therefore 
begin with the beginning of adolescence if we would exert the 



"Bagley, W. C. Some handicaps to education in a democracy. Sch. and 
Soc, 3: 1916, 807-816. See also Sneddon's discussion of this article, pp. 816-818. 

^^Bagley, W. C. The justification of a certain measure of uniformity. Univ. 
of III. Sch. of Educ. Bull. No. 13, 1914. 12-21. 

"Bagley, W. C. Some handicaps to education in a democracy. Sch. and 
Soc, 3 : 1916, 807-816. 

"Bagley, W. C. The six-six plan. Sch. and Home Educ, 34: 1915, 3-5. 

^Judd, C. H. The junior high school. Sch. Eev. 23 : 1915, 25-33. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 59 

largest influence. This means the elementary method naturally 
ends with the sixth grade, and with the seventh, differentiation must 
be made because of individual differences.^^ The eight-four 
plan is not a product of a struggle for democraej^, nor has it been 
proved that the high school is democratic. The elementary school 
''was at the outset an undefined, and in many respects, unlimited 
institution," as is shown by different schools of seven, eight, or 
nine grades. But the old grade-high-school plan is unnatural, 
and is being abandoned. We need to "remove the obstacles to 
progress now found in the high school and grades, ' ' and make for 
true economy by avoiding wasteful duplication, by facilitating 
progress, and by unifying the school system. In Judd's opinion, 
the real danger connected with the junior high school is that there 
may not be sufficiently thorough pedagogical and psychological 
study given to the reorganization of the subject matter. 

In different articles and editorials that he has written, Johns- 
ton^''' leaves no doubt about his position upon curriculum differ- 
entiation. He characterizes as ' ' absolutists ' ' those who would care- 
fully select certain "absolute essentials" for all pupils, and who 
favor a non-differentiated curriculum through the junior high 
school to bring it about that all pupils should be taught these ' ' ab- 
solute essentials." Such a plan is a "daring dream of national 
uniformity" and "tends to remind us forcibly that the belief in 
content is still widely current." In his opinion, as in Judd's, 
pupils between the ages of 13 and 15 are by nature different, and 
hence require different treatment. As a "socialized conception of 
all education" will furnish the medium for development, there will 
come as a consequence a "richer democracy of real self-directing 
individuals who have had meted out to them by a public educa- 
tional system the sort of education which the industrial and social 
state made necessary, as well as the sort always necessary from 
the very fact of the humanity of man himself. "^^ 



"Judd, C. H. The junior high school. Sch. Bev., 24: 1916, 249-260. 
^'See Educ. Ad. and Super., vols. 1 and 2. 

^^Johnston, C. H. What is curriculum differentiation! (Editorial) Educ. 
Ad. and Super., 2 : 1916, 49-57. 



60 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Johnston distinguishes two forms of curriculum making. One 
of these he refers to as clerical and manipulative, and the other 
as discriminating and educational. The former shows skill on the 
part of the principals in organization and systematization alone, 
while the other represents keen insight into individual and group 
differences. By means of a manipulative program, a large number 
of curricula are frequently shown in a school, though in reality 
but slight variation exists between them.^^ He evidently is of the 
opinion that the average high-school principal makes curricula in 
this manner, while on the other hand educational theorists do not 
give advice specific enough to aid him in his work. Thus, the fol- 
lowing quotation: 

Bewildered American High-School Principal: Gentlemen, I have no 
such clear ideas of the purposes of the high school as have my visiting 
colleagues from Europe or the University specialists here present. "When- 
ever we American high-school principals hear of some new curriculum we 
at once regroup our high-school subjects and thus provide, on paper, the 
curriculum desired. Most of these curriculums, however, are merely the 
result of a re-shuffling of courses. They are merely paper curriculums. As 
a matter of fact, we have in America no "pillar theory" of curriculum con- 
struction. I recently read carefully the published curriculums of high 
schools of American cities- with about 20,000 population. These 40 schools 
offered 180 curriculums, averaging more than four curriculums each. I 
know that no one of them furnishes four thorough and distinguishable 
trainings for as many intelligibly grouped divisions of the students. I 
myself print eight curriculums for our pupils, but most of them represent 
varieties of the college preparatory. Those that do not are vocational 
mainly in name. From the points of view of the functions of secondary 
education the principles of curriculum construction, the basis for assigning 
students to curriculums, systems of educational and vocational guidance 
and the securing of teachers of vocational education, I am forced to admit 
to this body that I am entirely at sea. I feel that the American high school 
is somehow on trial, and that radical readjustments are impending. I have 
found this conference absorbingly interesting. I hope, however, engrossing 
as these speculative questions are, that something more definite may issue 
from it before we adjourn. We principals have to do something each day. 
We wish safe guidance.^" 



^"Johnston, C. H. Curriculum adjustments in high school. ScJi. Rev., 22 : 
1914. 577-590. 

^"Johnston, C. H. The high-school issue. A symposium. Educ. Ad. and 
Super., 7 : 1915, 29-49. 



TRE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 61 

A discriminating program, on the other hand, is organized 
with reference to individual needs.^i Johnston does not believe a 
''discriminating program" will rigidly separate groups of pupils, 
thereby working an educational disadvantage to some — although 
he recognizes this is a possibility — because a number of courses 
will function in different curricula. If courses are modified for 
their different "curriculum settings," this in no way "precludes 
or lessens the probability of their preserving their distinctive edu- 
cational values as 'subjects '."22 

However, certain principles are common to discussions of sub- 
ject matter. On the one hand is the tendency to take definite ac- 
count of the pupil's experience as the starting point of all instruc- 
tion, and consequently to draw upon the immediate environment 
for subject matter ; on the other hand is the tendency, perhaps more 
marked in the elementary school, to fix certain constants of instruc- 
tion. One of these views does not necessarily exclude the other. 
They come closely together in that the constants are chosen because 
of their importance and frequency in daily life, which means the 
constants are the most common environmental elements found in 
the life of the average person. However, the points of emphasis 
differ, being the child in the first case, and subject matter in the 
second. Emphasis upon the psychology of adolescent and the 
principle of interest^^ brings it about that less heed is given to the 
acquisition of standardized subject matter; while with increased 
stress upon the acquisition of subject matter comes a tendency to 
lose sight of the psychological makeup of the child. 

The word "cultural" is given many meanings, the most com- 
mon being almost synonymous with "informational" or perhaps 
"conventional," and is applied to subjects closely akin to those 
found in the "old curriculum" in comparison with the more "use- 
ful" subjects of a prevocational or vocational character. "Cul- 
tural ' ' is used by other writers to mean that ' ' habit of mind which 



"Johnston, C. H. Curriculum adjustments in high school. Sch. Eev., 22: 
1914, 577-590. 

^^ Johnston, C. H. What is curriculum differentiation? (Editorial) Educ. 
Ad. and Super., 2: 1916, 49-57. 

^See Dewey, J. Interest and Effort in Education. 1913, 101 p. 



52 THE FIFTEENTH YEAEBOOK 

perceives and estimates all matters with reference to their bearing 
on social values and aims." Again, "culture must be related to 
the student's future life. I do not believe that any real culture 
comes from following a prescribed course of study ; but culture will 
always come with the love of the work being done, from a realiza- 
tion that the work has a clear relation to the future vocation." 
According to this conception, any subject may be cultural.^* 

None denies that the curriculum must be "vitalized" or made 
' ' more worth while ' ' to the pupil. Here again is a term with a dual 
significance. For some, " vitalization " means the application of 
social conditions to arithmetic — using social conditions to study 
arithmetic — ; for others, it means the application of arithmetic to 
. social relations — studying social conditions and learning arithmetic 
as a consequence. 

Current educational psychology deals for the most part with 
response to the environment; less account is taken of original 
nature than of the environmental elements. Only occasional refer- 
ences are made to transfer of training. None advocates teaching 
any subject for the sake of its formal training alone, but the ma- 
jority would teach each subject in such a way as to secure from 
it "all possible drill in correct methods of thinking and worthy 
ideals of mental action." 

PEINCIPLES UNDEELTING EEOEGANIZATION OF THE 
SEVEEAL SUBJECTS 

English. The commonest ends set forth in the teaching of 
English are the appreciation of the works of standard authors and 
an increased power of oral and written expression.^s Somewhat 
subservient to these ends is the insistence that many place upon the 
development of the ability (which should be definitely measured) 
to read silently. To these aims is added the inculcation of moral 
principles through the study of literary characters; while an ef- 
fort is also made to make the youth realize that convention de- 

=*See Hall, G. S. Educational ProUems. 1911, 2 vols. (Vol. 1, p. 588.) 
-preliminary statements by chairman of committees of tlie commission of 

the N. E. A. on the reorganization of secondary education. U. S. Bur. of Educ. 

Bull. No. 41, 1913, 80 p. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 63 

mands correct language, thus stimulating the tendency to correct 
speech. Little or no emphasis is placed on the technique or de- 
velopment of literature as such. Penmanship, spelling, grammatical 
and rhetorical structure are accordingly made tools of expression. 
These subjects, instead of being taught in isolation, are well 
grouped together under the subject "English," and each is made 
to contribute its share towards the goal aimed at by " English, "^e 

In expression three things are fundamental : 2''' first, there 
must be something to express; second, a real opportunity for ex- 
pression must be provided; and, third, expression must be guided. 
Imagination does not mean playing with impossible material, but 
a constructive process based upon elements of actual experience. 
Therefore, subjects for written and spoken English will be those 
arising from the vocational activities of the pupils, from their 
dramatic, athletic, or other school interests, from the reading of 
wholesome magazines and books, or from any other interest. In like 
manner, assigned readings whose form and content are beyond the 
pupil will not be made, but readings will be given which produce 
a genuine reaction because they contain elements found in the 
actual working knowledge of the pupil. This, of course, does not 
mean that no place will be found for the classics. If the approval 
of the social group is called into play, as in the classroom or audi- 
torium, or if expression is vitalized in some other way, as in con- 
nection with the printing press, the opportunity for expression 
would be more ideal. Moreover, guidance in expression consists of 
emphasis skilfully placed upon the mechanics of oral and written 
expression as the occasion arises, while continued guidance should 
finally lead the pupil to some appreciation of technique in literature 
for its own sake. 

Social Suhjecis?^ Under the head of social subjects are in- 
cluded community civics, elementary economics, history, and often 
geography. It is intended that these studies shall aid the pupil in 

^^Lawson, M. F. The soeialization of language study in the junior high 
school. Fed. Sem., 23 : 1916. 76-85. 

"State Dept. of Educ, St. Paul. BuK No. 51, 1914. p. 7. 

^*See The teaching of community civics. Prepared by a special committee 
of the commission on the reorganization of secondary education, N. E. A. 
U. S. Bur. of Eckic. Bull. No. 2S, 1915. 55 p. (Bibl.). 



64 TRE FIFTEENTH TEABBOOK 

interpreting his immediate social environment and in establishing 
a standard of conduct with reference to civic institutions. The 
other aims of history — to train the reasoning powers, to give skill 
in forming judgments, and to afford ethical training — are not 
entirely neglected, but they are included in the social efficiency aim 
rather than made coordinate with it. Briefly, the method advocated 
is to begin with the study of the civic and economic problems in the 
immediate environment, and to follow these as they lead outside 
the home and school to the city or community, state, and nation. 
Obviously, those social factors most affecting the life of the child 
should receive first attention, and these will perhaps vary with the 
community to some extent. However, such topics as community 
health, industrial conditions, public recreation, city government, 
etc., are advocated as being suitable for all. It is to be insisted, 
however, that the pupil be brought into actual contact with the 
problems he is studying. 

Chairman Jones of the Committee on Social Studies on Reor- 
ganization of Secondary Education, quotes approvingly Professor 
Eobinson, who presents an ideal in history instruction: 

Obviously, history must be rewritten, or, rather, innumerable current 
issues must be given their historic background. Our present so-called 
histories do not ordinarily answer the questions we would naturally and 
insistently put to them. * * * * We ask, 'How did our courts come to con- 
trol legislation in the exceptional and extraordinary manner they do?' We 
look in vain in most histories for a reply. * * * * It is only to be wished 
that a greater number of historians had greater skill in hitting upon prob- 
lems of the present. 

When this view is taken by those formulating junior-high- 
school curricula, little of the history taught in the seventh and 
eighth grades will remain, but history as such will be used to ex- 
plain problems arising in connection with studies of present social 
significance.^^ 

To find what cities having junior high schools were doing in 
the reorganization of their history courses, Tyron sent question- 



^Preliminary statements by chairman of committees of the commission of 
the N. E. A. on the reorganization of secondary education. U.S. Bur. of Ed%c. 
Bull. No. 41, 1913. p. 23. 



TRE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 65 

naires to 68 places. The returns lead him to believe that on the 
whole but little progress has been made. In the seventh grade, 
American history to about the year 1789 is given; in the eighth, 
American history from that date down to the present time is 
studied, but with the most of the emphasis given to the period end- 
ing with 1865. Ancient history is extensively taught in the ninth 
grade. 

From his questionnaire returns and from other work dcfne in 
history, Tyron suggests certain points to be considered by those 
working out junior-high-school history courses. He says: 

First, it must be recognized that the junior-high-sehool history is to 
follow a course that all have had thorough training in, and precede a course 
whieh all may or may not take. Secondly, the fact must be recognized that 
not all the pupils will finish the three years of the junior high school.* * * * 
In the third place, the course will be planned for the sake of the pupils 
taking it, rather than for the sake of the subject, history. * * * * Fourthly, 
there is a certain amount of history which all pupils must know before they 
can do any subsequent work in this subject with the best results. And, 
finally, the history courses in these grades must be made to function in 
the form of a key to a right understanding of present-day conditions.'" 

Matliematics.^^ In the place of arithmetic, algebra and 
geometry, whieh represent a logical and not a psychological 
sequence, a course in mathematics should be substituted which rep- 
resents a unification of these three subjects after certain parts of 
each have been eliminated. Arithmetic, which will perhaps form 
the bulk of instruction in the seventh and the first half of the 
eighth grades, must be correlated with the life of the student, which 
means that emphasis will be placed upon the social and economic 
aspects of arithmetic. As an aid in analysis, however, the equa- 
tion and the unknown term from algebra should be introduced 
wherever needed. Mensuration and other topics of measurement 
should be facilitated by the introduction of constructional geome- 
try. The last half of the eighth year and the first part of the ninth 



^"Tyron, E, M. History in the junior high school. Elem. Sch. Jour., 16: 
1916, 491-507. 

"See Breslieh, E. E. Forward movements in secondary mathematics. Sch. 
Bev., 24: 1916, 283-297. (Takes up the principle of mathematics for its own 
sake.) 



66 



THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



will consist mainly of algebra, with special emphasis upon the 
equation, but at the same time the facts of geometry applicable to 
the work in algebra could well be given. Toward the end of the 
ninth year the work will be mainly geometry. 

The following table, taken from Jessup, is based upon a ques- 
tionnaire sent by him to about 1700 city superintendents and to 
every sixth county superintendent in the United States. It shows : 

TABLE 5 

The Percentage op Supeeintendents Who foe Cbetain Topics Favoe (1) Elimi- 
nation (2) Less Attention (3) Elimination oe Reduction of 
Time; and (4) Moee Attention 



Apothecaries' weight 53 

Troy ■weight 42 

Furlong 72 

Rood (sq. Meas.) 20 

Dram 60 

Quarter (avoirdupois) 68 

Surveyors' tables 47 

Foreign money 28 

Folding; paper 35 

♦Reduction 22 

Long Meas. G. C. D 36 

L. C. M 22 

True discount 47 

Cube Root 46 

Partnership 25 

Compound proportion 52 

Com'p'd and complex frac'n 26 

Cases in percentage 20 

Annual Interest 41 

Longitude and time 8 

Unreal fractions 74 



Alligation 85 9 94 

Metric system 20 44 64 

Progression 67 20 87 

Aliquot parts 21 32 53 

♦Reduction of more than two steps. 



2 


3 


36 


89 


44 


86 


19 


91 


42 


62 


23 


83 


17 


85 


40 


87 


57 


85 


35 


70 


48 


70 


40 


75 


45 


67 


31 


78 


37 


83 


44 


69 


32 


84 


44 


70 


35 


55 


31 


72 


31 


39 


15 


89 



4 

Addition 75 

Subtraction 69 

Multiplication 72 

Division 70 

Fractions 65 

Percentage 50 

Interest . . 39 

Saving & Loaning 61 

Banking 39 

Borrowing 37 

Bldg. & loan assns 48 

Investments 44 

Bonds & stocks 20 

Taxes 58 

Levies 35 

Public expenditure 55 

Insurance 55 

Profits 48 

Publio Utilities 57 



Jessup says: 

Th© percentage of superintendents who favored the plan of increasing 
the emphasis upon certain subjects was tabulated so as to show the different 
attitudes toward each of the subjects suggested. A large percentage were 
in favor of giving more emphasis to the fundamental subjects such as addi- 
tion, multiplication, and division. There was also a very strong! sentiment 
in favor of increasing the emphasis on the applications of arithmetic to the 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 67 

social and economic conditions of tlie day; such as the saving and loam.ng 
of money, taxation, public expenditure, insurance, etc. 

Jessup found the median time spent upon arithmetic in the 
seventh grade is 150 minutes ; in the eighth grade, 165 minutes per 
week. He adds : 

Again, if one-fourth of the cities are able to get satisfactory results 
from 20 to 30 minutes per day or less in the fifth to eighth grades, certainly 
we have cause to question the reason why another fourth of the cities spend 
from 40 to 60 minutes or more per day in these grades. On the whole, it seems 
safe to say that the wide variation of recitation time in the various cities 
of the United States suggests the possibility of attempting to affect an 
economy of time by means of standardizing the number of minutes in, the 
recitation period. 

* * * * It may be said, however, that practically all of the investiga- 
tions which have been made thus far on this subject indicate that there is 
less relation between the time expended and the achievement than many 
have supposed.'* 

After investigating first-year algebra, Rugg concludes : 

The subject-matter of first-year algebra should be definitely organized 
in the form of a specific statement of (a) the 'mechanical' processes which 
should be drilled until perfectly habitualized; (6) the typical 'original' or 
applied problems in which should be given at least a definite minimum of 
practice in the application of the mechanical processes to new problematic 
situations. 

The study of errors made by pupils indicates that inefficiency in algehraic 
solution is due primarily to lack of mastery (habitualisation) of a few typical 

operations which recur frequently in such solution This condition points 

to a need for a thorough study of (1) the psychology of the learning process 
in algebra; (2) the relative emphasis that should be placed on the teaching of 
certain processes, i.e., the relative drill emphasis.'' 

Science. A spirited discussion has taken place recently with 
regard to the merits of general science as a high-school subject.^* 
It might be thought that the question does not apply with equal 

'-Jessup, W. A. Economy of time in arithmetic. Elem. Sch. Teach., 14 : 
1914, 461-476. Published also in Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 209-22. 

"Rugg, H. O. The experimental determination of standards in first year 
algebra. Sch. Bev., 24: 1916, p. 66. 

'^The School Beview, Volume 23, 1915, contains a number of articles which 
present both sides of the question. 



68 TSE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

force to the junior high school, whose students are younger, but 
if it should be agreed that general science, on account of its com- 
posite nature, has no place in a four-year high school, a correspond- 
ing diminution in the number of such courses given in the seventh 
and eighth grades could be expected. It is argued by some that 
the true scientific attitude can hardly be attained through the 
study of "a mosaic made up of fragments of information" which 
"breaks up all natural connections and forbids the development 
of those ideas which relate and hold facts. " It is argued by others 
that the unity originating from those facts of science which are 
found in the environment of the individual is the only true unity, 
for it approximates the unity of life itself. The latter view per- 
haps accords better with the pedagogical principles underlying the 
reorganization of the other courses. 

It cannot be questioned that the present science courses need 
reorganizing. A plentiful supply of textbooks is in existence, con- 
taining fragments of botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, geogra- 
phy, etc. But little attempt has been made, and less success has 
been achieved, in making principles concrete through application. 
It seems, finally, that a majority believe there is a place in the cur- 
riculum for a general science of the right type. 

Taylor's recent study throws some light upon the status of gen- 
eral science. Of 153 Iowa cities, 120 had courses in this subject, of 
which 12 were offering it one year and 21 one-half year. Of 196 
California cities, 97 had courses in general science, of which 82 
were offering it one year and 8 one-half year. In Iowa most of the 
cities gave general science 5 times a week ; in California the range 
was from 1 to 10 periods a week. For the most part, general 
science was given in the ninth grade. All the schools except three 
Iowa cities were giving laboratory work, field work, or combina- 
tions of laboratory and field work.^^ 

In a more recent report on general science in Iowa high schools, 
Lewis found that 28 per cent of the total number of schools in that 
state were oft'ering the subject, and that 15 per cent contemplate 
introducing it soon. Seventy-seven of the 100 schools offering 



"Taylor, A. M. General science situation in Iowa and California. Sch. 
Bev., 24: 1916, 20-25. 



THE JDNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 69 

general science introduced it in 1915-16. In 90 schools the course 
was one semester in length. 

From his figures Lewis concluded that ''in a majority of cases 
there has been a marked displacement of other subjects. This dis- 
placement has affected physical geography, botany, and zoology 
rather seriously. ' ' Eeplies ' ' show very clearly that general science 
at present is a ninth grade subject in Iowa high schools ; in but four 
schools has any attempt been made to teach the subject in the eighth 
grade. In but one school is the subject taught in the tenth year." 
Twenty-five schools either failed to answer or frankly say that they 
do not have laboratory work in connection with general science ; 23 
schools reported only a very small amount, usually given for dem- 
onstration purposes in class." ^° 

Foreign Language. The foreign languages advocated for the 
junior high school fall into two groups : ancient language, or Latin ; 
and modern languages, or German, French, Spanish, etc. The aims 
that should govern instruction are largely the same. The advo- 
cates of both groups take the position that the pupil should become 
familiar with the fundamental principles of the language; he 
should improve in his ability to use English, should develop an 
interest in the life of the nation whose language is being studied 
and appreciate its influence on his own nation, and should develop 
attitudes and habits of mental industry. The aims differ in one 
particular. In the study of modern language the pupil should 
acquire the ability to use the language to some extent in speaking 
or writing. 

A close resemblance obtains in methods of instruction. Both 
groups would begin with words and simple sentences about familiar 
objects, following this by the introduction of simple, interesting 
stories. Only occasionally is the mastery of conjugation and de- 
clensions advocated as an end; on the contrary, as little grammar 
should be given as possible, especially at first, and form should 
never precede actual use. As the course proceeds, more emphasis 
is placed upon verb or noun endings. Since the seventh or eighth- 
grade child cannot be expected to appreciate literary style or mas- 



"" Lewis, E. E. General science in Iowa high schools. Sch. Bev., 24: 1916, 
426-435. 



70 TSE FIFTEEN IE YEARBOOK 

terpieces of literature, texts of this kind are being excluded, and 
tales of folk-lore, description and travel are finding a place in their 
stead. There is no general consensus that the direct method should 
be exclusively used in teaching either Latin or a modern language, 
but there is a consensus of opinion that a combination of conver- 
sational and text-book methods will give the best results. Both 
ancient and modern-language theorists emphasize the value of 
reading. 

A difference in method does exist, however, and to a degree 
dependent upon the amount of stress placed upon the acquisition 
of a reading and speaking knowledge of the language. In Latin 
more emphasis is given to English derivatives; while in modern 
foreign language correct pronunciation is stressed. Since ill-formed 
habits cause loss of time, it is necessary that the pupil acquire pho- 
netic accuracy from the beginning. . Moreover, the vocal organs are 
more plastic at this age, and the other interests of school and life 
are not so urgent. Therefore, great care should be taken to insure 
correct pronunciation from the beginning. It will aid in ac- 
complishing this end to give frequent individual and class drill in 
pronunciation, dictation exercises, and songs, poems, and short 
stories to be memorized. 

In actual practice, marked preference is shown for Latin and 
German, although no reason is given for this preference. Miss F. 
L. Stuart, in the 1914 High-School Conference of the University 
of Illinois, urged that more attention be given to Spanish, that all 
claims made for German or French could be made equally well 
for Spanish, while the latter language possesses practical ad- 
vantages far surpassing the former. The need for Spanish is be- 
ing recognized by many colleges; while the evening schools in 
various cities, Y. M. C. A. schools, etc., spend much more time 
upon it than formerly. This is in recognition of the fact that, if 
the United States is to compete with European countries, men able 
to converse mth the people of Latin-American countries in their 
own language and who understand Latin ideals must represent the 
commercial interests of this country .^^ 



^^Stuart, r. L. The demand for Spanish. Univ. of 111. Sch. of Educ. Bull. 
No. 13, 1914. 264-268. 



THE JVNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 71 

In the California intermediate schools the study of Latin seems 
to be very successful. The text-books in common usage are a Latin 
primer and a Latin first-reader, written by Professor H. C. Nut- 
ting, of the University of California, and designed especially for 
the intermediate school. About a year and a half is devoted to the 
primer and a half-year to the reader. In the ninth year Caesar is 
commonly read. Very little work is done outside of the class in the 
seventh year, but the amount is gradually increased during the 
next two years. Much work is done in concert ; blackboard vocabu- 
laries are stressed ; drills are frequently given, and the oral transla- 
tion of English into Latin is emphasized. Interest is appealed to 
by employing the class in some activity demanding the use of Latin. 
The opinion among the Latin teachers was that "at that age they 
[the pupils] memorize very readily, but unless there is much, 
very much repetition, what has been so quickly learned is quickly 
lost. They are free from self-consciousness, and are full of eager 
interest in their work. On the other hand, the reasoning powers 
are not so fully developed, and grammatical constructions must be 
presented very simply and very slowly to be understood. ' ' Pupils 
who had had the intermediate-school training were better prepared 
for the more advanced Latin than those who had studied one year 
of Latin in the ninth grade.* 

Hygiene. Relatively little junior-high-school literature deals 
with physiology, hygiene, or physical training; and only in a few 
curricula is health given a place equal in importance to other sub- 
jects. It has been conceded that the teaching of physiology in 
the past has been almost a failure, probably because instruction 
has been negative rather than positive and because time has been 
spent on anatomy and physiology rather than habit-formation. At 
present, hoAvever, there is not the concerted effort to work out 
courses in hygiene as in the other school subjects. 

Burnham holds the fundamental aim in teaching hygiene 
should be the inculcation of habits necessary for health. Knowl- 



*Nutting, H. C. Latin in the seventh, and eighth grades in California. 
Classical Weekly, 7: 1914, 154-157. 

Deutsch, M. E. Latin instruction in California intermediate schools. 
Classical WeeJcly, 8: 1915, 122-125. 



72 TSE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

edge of laws of healtli, anatomy, and physical development are 
necessary as they aid in forming these habits of useful activity, but 
actual training in hygiene is the essential thing. Storey believes 
that in the grades emphasis should be placed upon physical exer- 
cises, bathing, tooth-biTish drills, the part the child plays in medi- 
cal and physical examinations, school sanitation, etc., as procedures 
tending to develop habits of hygienic living. He vrould correlate 
this work closely with the advancing grades and vary it as needed 
with regard to content, presenting enough physiology' and anatomy 
to insure an intelligent knowledge of hygiene.-^''' Burnham out- 
lines a course for teachers, in order that such a program may be 
carried out. The chief topics in his outline are : Personal hygiene, 
contributing to the efficiency of the teacher as a worker; public 
hygiene, furnishing a means of showing the conditions that favor 
the welfare of society ; hygiene of the child, imparting a knowledge 
of the character of the child's body and the laws of its growth; 
school hygiene, dealing with the conditions of the school room and 
the sanitation of the school surroundings ; mental hygiene and hy- 
giene of instruction, furnishing a basis for method in instruc- 
tion.^^ 

Commercial Subjects. Less unanimity exists in the discus- 
sions of the commercial subjects than in the treatment of the so- 
called academic subjects. Some would exclude entirely from the 
seventh and eighth grades such subjects as stenography and tjT)e- 
writing, because they possess relatively little educational value; 
others assert they have proved their educational worth and are en- 
titled to their place. Some formulate the ends of the commercial 
curriculum in terms of the English, arithmetic, etc., that the busi- 
ness man v;ould expect of the eighth-grader if he were to leave 
school and go to work; others, while they would teach practically 
every subject in the commercial curriculum from the standpoint 
of business, would put educational values foremost ; and still others 
would use the commercial courses as a field wherein the pupil 
might gain prevocational insight. On the whole, there seems to be 



'"Storey, T. A. Teaching of hygiene. Monroe's Cye. of Educ, pp. 357- 
360. Personal hygiene, pp. 354-355. School hygiene, pp. 355-357. 
'^Burnham, "W. H. Hygiene. Monroe's Cyc. of Educ, pp. 353-4. 



TSE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 73 

a pronounced tendency to make the commercial curriculum pri- 
marily vocational first, and secondarily prevocational or educative. 
In discussing this curriculum, as in the manual arts, it is fre- 
quently pointed out that one aim should be to give a certain amount 
of training to those pupils who will be forced to leave school at an 
early age. On the other hand, it is objected that this class of pupils 
cannot Avell be selected and segregated. Moreover, all the courses 
in the program should be as nearly equal in educational value as 
possible, for, if the vocational aspect is emphasized, pupils will be 
unable to transfer to another curriculum without the loss of time. 
Again, it is objected that the commercial curriculum is necessarily 
narrower than one including manual arts, academic subjects, and 
commerce. The answer is that this may be remedied by allowing 
commercial pupils the privilege of election from manual arts and 
academic subjects. 

Home Econoynics. Since practically all girls are potential 
home-makers, "it is the purpose of this group of courses offered 
under household arts not only to prepare girls to become better 
home-makers, but also to make them more intelligent concerning 
those occupations which were formerly a part of every home but 
have recently been taken from the home, and to give them an ap- 
preciation of the factors that make up the municipal environment, 
and of the influence of these on the home."^^ The courses them- 
selves fall into three groups: sewing, cooking, and home-planning 
and decoration. While considerable skill should be gained in actual 
manipulative processes, still the work should be directed to the 
broader, more educational end. Outlines of courses in sewing 
usually begin with simpler processes, as the making of stitches and 
simple pieces of clothing, and proceed to machine work, study of 
textiles, history and economic value of textiles, the relation of 
clothing to income, care and hygiene of clothing, beauty and be- 
comingness of clothing, and the like. In the same way, courses in 
foods begin by the preparation of standard dishes, but proceed to 
balanced meals, foods for children or invalids, economic value of 
foods, chemistry of foods, and perhaps the hygiene of digestion. 
In both courses, stress is placed upon practical work and the rela- 
'■"U. S. Bnr. of Educ. BuU. No. 41, 1913. p. 58. 



74 TEE FIFTEENTS YEABBOOK 

tion of income to the amount expended for clothing and food ; and 
upon actual rather than 'black-board' buying. Occasionally, in 
connection with these courses reference is made to the care of chil- 
dren, and still less occasionally to the more direct phases of moth- 
erhood. Courses in home-planning and decorating are not so well 
worked out. 

Industrial Arts. All agree that, beginning with the seventh 
school year, vocational guidance must be given to most, if not to 
all pupils. Much work has been done, and methods are crystalliz- 
ing for the promotion of prevocational education, as distinct from 
trade training. 

Studies show that the average twelve-year-old pupil has very 
incomplete ideas of his future, as well as a very inaccurate con- 
ception of the different industrial fields. If he has made any 
choice as to his future occupation, it is usually because of associa- 
tion, imitation of a friend, or a desire to emulate an adult whom 
he admires.^° Even at the age of fifteen or sixteen only about 
half have selected a vocation, while of those who have done so, few 
are able to give intelligent reasons for their choice and still fewer 
have correct conceptions of the occupations they have selected. 
However, the interest in surrounding activities, blended with the 
more or less vague conviction that an occupation must sometime 
be chosen, is an aid in vocational guidance. Student question- 
naires and other such devices help in bringing the pupil to con- 
sider his future. Natural ability shown in different lines of school 
work is taken as a primary consideration in giving vocational guid- 
ance. 

The Committee on the Economy of Time in Education has out- 
lined vocational education for the schools in a broad way^^ and 
many of its suggestions have been more or less deliberately fol- 
lowed by many school superintendents. The plan is : At the end 
of the six-year elementary school there should be provided "lower" 
vocational institutions, which begin training that will not develop 
productiveness or specialization in a narrower sense, but that will 



^''Bloomfield, M. (Editor). Headings in vocational guidance. 1915, 723 
pp. Contains many studies along this line. 

^Z7. S. Bur. of Educ. Bull. No. 38, 1913. p. 32. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 75 

give a vocational training standing in the same relation to later 
specialization or apprenticeship as the tools of learning acquired 
in the first six grades do to the later high-school or college years. 
Beginning with the senior high school, or at about the fifteenth 
year, a somewhat" more specialized training dealing especially with 
those occupations midway between the trades and professions 
should be given. The graduates of these schools are not yet finished 
workmen or tradesmen, but continue through the university; or 
if they should stop school at this point, they would enter upon a 
new, shortened, and school-supervised apprenticeship. The argu- 
ment for a school-supervised apprenticeship is that proper train- 
ing will not be given by a manufacturing plant, trade union, or a 
foreman, who cares nothing for the development of the young ap- 
prentice. 

The inference may be drawn that the general theory held by 
those outlining junior-high-school work is in the main as follows: 
Pupils in the seventh and eighth grades should pursue the funda- 
mental branches as the chief divisions of the curriculum in classes 
where but little differentiation is made with reference to the par- 
ticular vocational courses, but where class work is vitalized 
through industrial work as well as other social applications. In 
addition to its educational aim, the vocational course should aim 
to determine the pupil's natural aptitude in some particular line 
and to discover any pronounced lack of ability. Any curriculum 
must be elastic enough to allow changes from one line to another, 
without the loss of time, until the best possible opportunity for 
success is discovered. As a consequence, the prevocational lines 
now being formulated are: the academic, offering languages; the 
commercial, offering the beginnings of a business education; and 
the industrial, which usually consists of wood and metal work, ag- 
riculture and domestic science. The academic and commercial are 
usually more general than the industrial curricula, since the lat- 
ter are built more directly upon the occupations of local communi- 
ties. 

Several other well-marked tendencies of vocational education 
in the present-day reorganization are to be noted. One is the dis- 
position to make provision for a class of pupils who intend to end 



76 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

their schooling with approximately the eighth year, and who de- 
sire to secure training that will fit them for productive .work. 
Courses, usually two years in length and designed to give a rather 
specific vocational training, are offered for these pupils. In some 
instances this is reinforced by a "part-time" or a "'follow-up" 
system. 

A second tendency is to vitalize the different courses and at 
the same time make them prevocational by correlating them with 
the social and industrial activities of the community.'*^ Principal 
J. B. Davis of Grand Rapids, Michigan, has evolved a plan of vo- 
cational guidance which is in operation in his school, and varia- 
tions of wliich are found in a number of places. It is carried on 
through the English courses. Beginning with the seventh grade, 
studies are made of the occupations. For this work, trips are 
taken to different industrial establishments, books and magazines 
are supplied, and the pupil is encouraged to find from any source 
whatever he can about the vocation he is studying. An attempt 
is made also to lead the pupil to consider his own fitness for a 
calling, while data taken by the vocational adviser help him to 
understand the child's inclinations. The procedure is made more 
definite with the succeeding grades, and the discovered aptitudes 
are taken into consideration to some extent in assigning individual 
work in the other classes.'*^ 

There is also a ten den cj^ to carry the prevocational lines of the 
earlier grades into the senior high school where they are to be 
differentiated further, made more specific, and articulated directly 
with the industries and the professions, as the college-preparatory 
course has been articulated with the colleges in the past. This 
conception leaves out the "school-supervised apprenticeship" 
recommended by the Committee on the Economy of Time; it makes 
the senior high school more vocational than it would be otherwise ; 
and it makes necessary at least a selection of a general type of 
vocation at the end of the ninth school year. 



"See Dewey, J., and Dewev, E. Schools of tomorrow. 1915, 316 pp. 
Taylor, J. S. Eeport on Gary schools. Educ. Bev., 49: 1915. 510-526. 
■^^Davis, J. B. Vocational and moral guidance. 1914. 303 pp. 



TEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 77 

In a questionnaire study of manual and household arts in the 
elementary and secondary schools of 156 cities, including 39 
states, Park and Harlan found one-half reported the prevocational 
aim as dominant in their teaching. They also found a wide range 
of variation in the kinds and the grade-location of the work offered. 
The central tendencies show one period a week of 70 to 90 minutes 
in the grade and 5 periods of about 75 minutes in the hi^h schools. 
They found about 5 per cent of the total school time utilized in 
the first 6 grades, about 6 per cent in the seventh and eighth, and 
nearly 25 per cent in the high school. They found a further ten- 
dency to adapt methods to the age and grade. Seventeen per cent 
used systematic graded exercises, individual projects by the pupils, 
•co-operative projects selected by the group, and projects expres- 
sive of some phase of work in arithmetic, history, literature or other 
subjects. Other combinations were used frequently, but the com- 
bination of systematic graded exercises with individual projects was 
used in 23 per cent of the cases. They found a strong tendency 
towards individual work, since 40 per cent of the cities allow the 
pupils to keep the products of their handiwork. The tendency 
to dispose of such products by sale was almost negligible.^"* 

A number of recent studies have been undertaken to deter- 
mine the extent and scope of manual and domestic arts. Bennett's 
questionnaire sent to 196 school systems showed 24 giving 2.5 or 
more hours to manual arts in the seventh grade; 45 cities, 2.5 or 
more hours in the eighth ; 46 cities, 5 or more hours in the ninth. Of 
1,336 smaller cities, 753 report courses in industrial arts. The 
Reading survey of 147 cities showed 42 different industrial-arts 
subjects given in the seventh grade. Elementary bench work, 100 
schools; sewing, 81; cooking, 71; mechanical drawing, 53, were 
most frequently given. About the same situation was found in the 
eighth grade. 

EXISTING JUNIOE-HIGH-SCHOOL CUEEICULA 

The following tables and charts summarize the curricula found 
in actual operation in 75 seventh and eighth grades, and in 31 ninth 

"Park, J. C, and Harlan, C. L. Teaching of manual arts and home mak- 
ing in 156 cities in the United States. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1 : 1915, 677-678. 



78 



TKE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 



grades. All of these schools begin their junior division with the 
seventh grade. In a few cases a ninth grade was included when it 
did not form a part of the junior high school. This method of tabu- 
lation perhaps gives a better representation of present work than 
if schools were included regardless of grade grouping. It is prob- 
able, however, that the 31 ninth-grade curricula contain a greater 
proportion of the more progressive cities, and that, as a conse- 
quence, the ninth grades appear better than they would otherwise. 
In instances where two or more curricula are found in one school, 
subjects — as English, for example — occurring in each of the cur- 
ricula were taken as required. 



TABLE 6 

Cities Whose Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth-Geade Cureioula aee Included 
IN This Summaey 



Berkeley, Cal. 

Los Angeles 

Oakland 

Santa Rosa 

Norwalk, Conn. 

Quincy, 111. 

Springfield 

East Chicago, Ind. 

Seymour 

Goldfield, la. 



Chanute, Kan. 



Neodesha 
Adrian, Mich. 
Grand Rapids 
Lowell 

Cokato, Minn. 
Crookston 
Duluth 
Rochester 



Wisconsin High School (Madison) 



Santa Fe, N. M. 
Trenton, ST. J. 
Horace Mann, (N. Y.) 
Columbus, O. 
Muskogee, Ok. 
Salem, Ore. 
Curwensville, Pa. 
Murray, Utah. 
Salt Lake City 
Bristol, Va. 



Cities Whose Seventh and Eighth-Geade Cueeicula are Included in This 

Summaey 



Fresno, Cal. 

San Francisco 

Ft. Morgan, Col. 

New Britain, Conn. 

Boise, Idaho. 

Lewiston 

Crawfordsville, Ind. 

Evansville 

Mt. Vernon 

Richmond 

Denison, la. 

Hampton 

Winfield 

Arkansas City, Kan. 

Great Bend 



Ft. Scott, Kan. 

Girard 

Manhattan 

Madisonville, Ky. 

Morganfleld 

Paducah 

Arlington, Mass. 

Dudley 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 

Faribault, Minn. 

Hutchinson 

Lincoln, Neb. 

Brockport, N. T. 

Dansville 

Scotia 



Silver Creek, N. Y. 

Solvay 

Bismark, N. D. 

Devil's Lake 

Grafton 

Webster 

New Kensington, Pa. 

Brookings, S. D. 

Columbia, Tenn. 

San Antonio, Tex. 

Ogden, Utah 

Burlington, Vt. 

Diamondville, Wyo. 

Jjaramie (U. of W. ) 



Tables 6 and 7 present a number of interesting points. A wide 
range of subjects is found, as well as a wide range of grouping of 
subject matter. In English, for example, some schools have 
courses well organized under the head of "English," with gram- 
mar, penmanship, spelling, etc., closely coordinated; others have 
courses appearing upon close examination to consist of reading or 



TRE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 79 

Seventh Grade (75 Schools) 



English 


r 






75 
























Soc'l Sci. 


1 






75 
























Mathem'ts 








75 
























Science 


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14 


16 1 




65 
















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30 


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Hygiene 


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•42 




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27 1 
















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48 




1 


12 


3 15 "' 


















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34 




24 




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Commerce 


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13 




61 1 








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English 


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75 






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Soc'l Sci. 








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16 1 


















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Ind. Art 






88 




37 




1 10 ( 


Commerce 


r 




24 1 





" "50 


— 











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Schools) 


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1 


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Chabt 1. 

Chart 1. Graphic Eepresentation of the Data in Table 7. 

The heavy line denotes that the subject is required, the light line that it 
is elective, and the broken line that it is not given. The number of schools is 
indicated. 



80 



TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



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THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 81 

literature, two periods a week; grammar, two periods a week, and 
a period of penmanship and spelling — these sectionalized and pre- 
sented in a wholly separated fashion. Others have made no attempt 
to unify English. The same may be said of the subjects grouped 
under the caption "Social Science," or "Mathematics." Among 
the foreign languages, German and Latin hold sway. In the sev- 
enth grade 35 of the 75 schools offer foreign language. Of these 
35, one offers Latin alone ; 15 offer German alone ; and 6 offer both 
Latin and German, thus accounting for all but 13 of the schools. 
In the eighth grade of the 42 schools offering languages 4 offer 
only Latin; 3 give only German; and 18 permit a choice between 
the two. 

In the seventh grade 34 schools offer no optional subjects; 
seven schools offer a choice between manual training or domestic 
science and a foreign language ; and one offers domestic science or 
manual training as the only elective. In the eighth grade 25 
schools offer no optional subject; 6 permit a choice between domes- 
tic science or manual training and a foreign language; 9 offer 
language as the only elective. In the ninth grade greater freedom 
of choice is given. Only one school offers no optional subject; 
three offer language alone; and one offers only a choice between 
language and manual training or domestic science. 

Seventh G rade J T5 Schools )_ _ 



[itli.<3TaJLe_C76.S^I?ao2sJ « , 



Jijtth^rade 131 Jcho^lj) 

CHART 2 

Pkopoetion of Schools Offering Electives (Solid Line) and Not Offeking 
Electives (Broken Line) in the 7th, 8th and 9th Grades 

According to these tables, the backbone of the curriculum for 
the first two junior-high-school years consists of English, social 
science, and mathematics. Real differentiation is not under way. 



82 TRE FIFTEENTS YEARBOOK 

If the curricula from which, the tables are compiled are representa- 
tive, the average curriculum for the first year of the junior high 
school is: English (6 periods per week), with reading, writing, 
grammar, spelling and penmanship taught separately or in rather 
poor coordination under the general heading; social science (5), 
presented as history and geography; mathematics (5), meaning 
arithmetic; physiology and hygiene (3) or physical training (2) ; 
drawing (2) and perhaps music (2) ; manual training (2) or do- 
mestic science (2). For the second junior-high-school year the aver- 
age curriculum is: English (5) — much the same as that in the first 
year; history (5) or civics (5) ; arithmetic (5) ; physiologj^ and 
hygiene (3) or physical training (2) ; music (2) or drawing (2) ; 
and an option between Latin or German (5) and manual or domes- 
tic science (2). 

Real differentiation is under way in the ninth grade. Here 
the only required subject is English, and options are allowed — 
under supervision — to the extent that the pupil practically selects 
his OT\Ti work. He may choose among Latin and German, history, 
algebra, general sciences, music and drawing, manual or industrial 
arts and domestic science, and certain commercial subjects. 

The greatest number of subjects is found in connection with 
industrial arts or prevocational work, and this number is increased 
by approximately 50 per cent when the commercial branches are 
added. This variation is to be expected when curriculum building 
is considered from the standpoint of community interest. The pres- 
ence or absence of such subjects is, however, the only available in- 
dex to what is being done in a school system with regard to voca- 
tional guidance, and thus considered, it is strikingly noticeable that 
a considerable percentage of the schools are making no pro^asion 
whatever in this direction. Also, school reports and other litera- 
ture show that these branches are taught with a variety of aims in 
view. 

One question in our syllabus was: "Are your manual and 
household arts courses planned to help the student find his life's 
work, to fit for a trade, or for general educative value? Are these 
courses required?" Eighty-four replies are as follows: Eighteen 
plan their courses to "help the student find his life's work," 3 to 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 83 

help find a life 's work and to "fit for a trade, " 17 to help find a 
life's work and for "general educative value," 31 for general edu- 
cative value alone, while 15 have all these points more or less defi- 
nitely in mind. "General educative value" to some superinten- 
dents might imply a certain amount of prevocational training, but 
in the light of the other points in the question it would seem that 
those who would "help the pupil find his life's work" as well as 
give him "general educative value" may be more properly cred- 
ited with this latter conception. Of 73 replies, 31 require manual 
and domestic arts ; 37 allow the pupil to choose, and 5 require one 
or two years of this work (See Appendix, Section 3). 

Types of curricula. The different subjects and courses are 
grouped into curricula that vary from a curriculum representing 
a formalistic presentation of the old subject matter of the gram- 
mar school to a curriculum really made up of several different cur- 
ricula in which subjects and courses are differentiated for groups 
of pupils. A classification is unsatisfactory on account of overlap- 
ping, but several types seem to be more general (For examples of 
these types see Appendix, Section 2). 

1. One type is made up of the common branches with no elec- 
tions until the ninth year, when a choice may be made among 
languages, industrial arts, and perhaps science. This type often 
contains no manual or domestic-arts courses. 

2. A second curriculum is essentially the same as the first, 
save that manual training and domestic science are found through- 
out. Language may usually be begun in the eighth grade. Here also 
are feeble beginnings at a systematization of subject matter. 

3. A third type consists mainly of the common branches, 
with languages, manual training or industrial arts and domestic 
arts, science, and commerce, but the subject matter is being subju- 
gated to an overhauling, condensation and elimination of non- 
essentials, and is being correlated with the elementary school from 
below and with the senior high school from above. In varying de- 
grees, also, subject matter is being given its social and economic 
setting. A few elections are given the first year ; more opportunity 
for choice is given the second, while in the third year English is 



84 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

about the only required subject. Under this general heading sev- 
eral sub-types are found: 

(a) A general curriculum, in which the pupil elects such 
subjects as are not required of all. Sometimes statements are made 
to the effect that the pupil, the pupil's parents, and the principal 
or teachers cooperate in determining elections ; frequently no such 
statement is made. Here elections seem to carry no further than 
the semester or year. This is a very common type. 

It would seem that this plan offers a wide range for individual 
development through its adaptability to individual differences, and 
certainly an ample chance for adjustment in case of a wrong 
choice. On the other hand, it might be objected that it does not 
make adequate provision for continuity of effort. 

(5) Another type combines the general-curriculum with the 
separate-curriculum plan. Except for more or less elective privi- 
leges in the seventh and eighth grades, work is the same for all; 
with the ninth grade, distinct curricula are provided, and these are 
carried into the senior high school. This seems to be a rudiment of 
the eight-four plan where differentiated work was provided begin- 
ning with the high school. It assumes that the ninth-grader has 
reached a place where he can choose more specialized work, and it 
aids him in his decision through elections during the two preced- 
ing years. 

(c) A common type is di^aded into two or more curricula, 
such as the ''regular academic," the "industrial," and the "com- 
mercial." Here subjects like English, arithmetic and history, are 
the same for all pupils, and the curriculum is often named from 
one or two subjects that differ from the common stock. The main 
difference between this and Type a seems to be that the pupil de- 
cides at the beginning what work he is to pursue for three years. 

"Without doubt this plan tends to reduce to a minimum the 
disadvantages of the elective system. It must assume, however, 
that no mistake has been made in selecting the courses to form a 
definite curriculum and that the pupil has chosen correctly. Some- 
times provision is made for transfer, if it is shown that the pupil 
is clearly unfitted for the work he has chosen, but more often the 
pupil is given to understand that after the first year it will be 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 85 

difficult for him to change. Earely are electives provided within 
the curriculum. Lack of flexibility at the time when ability should 
be tested in a number of fields seems to be the greatest fault of this 
type. 

(d) Another type is divided into two-year "cycles." To 
some extent options are given at the beginning of the seventh year, 
but the selection at this stage carries with it certain subjects or 
courses and perhaps another cycle as well. At the beginning of the 
ninth grade a second and even more important selection is de- 
manded. 

This method aims at giving the benefit of the elective system 
and at the same time to insure that continuity of effort which may 
be lacking in a curriculum consisting largely of free electives. 
Since a cycle contains a group of subjects, there should also be a 
closer coordination of work. The work is, however, relatively un- 
changeable for two years. 

4. Another type provides several different curricula, in which 
subjects and courses are widely differentiated. Thus, English or 
arithmetic, varying but little from the traditional course, is pro- 
vided for pupils who expect to complete the high school and to 
enter college; commercial or industrial English or arithmetic for 
pupils whose aptitudes seem to be for this kind of work or whose 
vocational destinations will probably be the commercial or indus- 
trial world. This scheme involves also segregation as to sex. The 
sexes may be handled together in certain "cultural" subjects, 
while in the industrial subjects they receive separate instruction. 
In accordance with this view, there is no call for segregation in the 
"academic" curriculum and but little reason for segregation in 
the "commercial" curriculum, excepting when these pupils take 
manual training, domestic science, physiology and physical train- 
ing. However, the sexes are kept separate to the degree that 
science, history, mathematics and the like will differ when founded 
upon home-making on the one hand and upon industrial arts on 
the other. Others believe that segregation possesses value in it- 
self. 

This plan has been objected to on the ground that it provides 
a narrow training. A curriculum based entirely upon commercial 



86 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

or industrial branches, it is said, can hardly have the breadth of 
one including these subjects as electives. Moreover, pupils in these 
different lines of work are liable not to acquire a sufficient amount 
of the knowledge that ought to be common to all. The plan is 
defended on the ground that it provides the best possible means 
for individual differences and that knowledge really essential may 
be presented just as easily in a commercial or industrial setting. 

5. Whatever may be the general plan adopted, a number of 
superintendents are providing two- or three-year curricula for 
pupils who expect to leave school at the end of the eighth or ninth 
school-year, and who, as a consequence, desire training productive 
of immediate financial returns. This training is for the most part 
along commercial, industrial and home-making lines, and these 
lines are closely articulated with commerce, the industries and the 
home. It is realized that difficulty will arise in the planning of 
other work should a pupil desire to remain in school at the end of 
this time, and some are taking steps to remedy this trouble. 

6. Gary has often been said to possess a junior high school, 
not because of outward features of organization, but because of 
the educational principles upon which the system is founded. To 
Taylor, it is the most significant educational experiment since 
Pestalozzi; to Snedden, its plan of practical instruction is better 
' ' than anything heretofore existing outside of individual schools ; ' ' 
to Burris, it is the ''best yet devised." The community idea and 
the social working groups of pupils are to Dewey the "biggest 
idea. ' ' The maximal use of the school plant, play activities, dupli- 
cate school system, have been widely studied and imitated. The 
copious literature on Gary is for the most part highly laudatory. 

7. In the course of the junior-high-school reorganization into 
prevocational departments, fragments have split off — the indus- 
trial arts department withdrawing to form a separate elementary 
industrial or prevocational school. But, though narrowed to the 
industries, these schools still possess striking vocational guidance 
functions. In some localities schools are provided for 'motor- 
minded' students; in others, all students are given this work. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 87 

Leavitt and Brown in their recent book^^ are concerned chiefly 
with schools for the type of pupil that does not succeed in the tra- 
ditional work, although they do not seem convinced that all pupils 
could not pursue more vocational work with profit. 

One of the most consistent attempts to develop this type of 
school is the Ettinger prevocational experiment in New York. 
Under the Ettinger plan, children at the beginning of the seventh 
grade, having chosen between regular academic and industrial 
work, are divided into sections for wood-work, machine-making, 
millinery, pasting novelty work, power-machine operating, etc. The 
admitted purpose is vocational guidance, by "rotating industrial 
classes, ' ' with nine weeks in each shop, then shifting, until marked 
aptitude is shown; marked deficiency, on the other hand, results 
in a return to academic work until the next shift. ^*^ 

Albany and Rochester have industrial courses for normal 
pupils. Rochester has three boys' industrial and girls' household- 
arts centers, with prevocational experiences in wood-work, metal 
work, masonry and industrial drawing, cooking, sewing, applied 
art and design. But the Cleveland elementary industrial school, 
for example, is limited to retarded children. This school develops 
a course of study parallel to grades seven and eight, devoting half- 
time to practical arts, and reducing the amount of allotted book 
subjects two-fifths. Vocational guidance is secured through the gen- 
eral course in which the boys work before specializing definitely 
for the major art of the second year. In Indianapolis, while semi- 
industrial schools parallel grades seven and eight, the new course 
has also been placed in some elementary schools, with freedom of 
transfer, for all seventh and eighth-grade children. The range of 
prevocational experiences here includes "carpentry, joinery, repair 
work, art metal-work, printing and book-binding, sewing, dress- 
making, art needle-work, weaving, cooking and housekeeping." 



*^Leavitt, F. M., and Brown, E. Prevocational education in the puMic 
schools. 1915, 245 pp. 

^^Ettinger, W. L. A report on the organization and extension of prevoca- 
tional training in elementary schools. Dept. of Educ, New York City. 1915, 
80 pp. 

Weet, H. S. A first step in establishing the six-three-three plan. N. E. A. 
Bull. No. 6, 4: 1916, 146-152. Published also in Educ. Ad. and Super., 2: 
1916, 433-447. 



CHAPTER IV 

PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION IN 
THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

THE GEOUPING OP GRADES 

The present grouping of grades is first of all dependent upon 
local conditions, particularly upon building facilities. Outside of 
a few schools that have been governed largely by the previous ar- 
rangement of grade, there seems to be a consensus of opinion that 
the seventh grade is the place to begin the junior high school. A 
large majority of the school systems in which the junior high 
school has been established use either a six-two-four, a six-six, a 
six-three-three or six-four-two grouping (see Table 8). 

TABLE 8 
The Present Grouping of Junioe-High- School Grades in 184 School Systems 



Grades 


5-7 


5-8 


6-7 


6-8 


7-8 


7-9 


6-6 


8 


9 


8-9 


7-10 


Number of Systems .... 


1 


1 


1 


11 


77 


64 


10 


3 


1 


8 


7 



Of 22 additional schools that will reorganize later, 16 expect 
to include grades 7-9 in the junior high school. A few New Eng- 
land schools having nine grades plus a four years' high school are 
arranging to eliminate one year. On the other hand, a few cities 
in the south, where the seven-year elementary school is common, 
report that they have formulated a system calling for six years' 
elementary and six years' high-school work. 

The six-two-four method seems to be an outgrowth of the 
eight-grade grammar school and is found very often, though not 
always, in the same building with the first six grades. Its frequen- 
cy may be partially explained by the lack of organization and cor- 
relation of subject-matter, since a number of superintendents who 
use this plan are expecting to add the ninth grade as well. In 
this case it may be looked upon rather as a stage of development, 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 89 

although it is probable, even with this conception, that the seventh 
and eighth grades will comprise the junior-high-school unit in 
some cities for some time to come. On the other hand, if differ- 
entiation of courses should come with the ninth grade, as it now 
does in some schools, or if the ninth grade should be regarded as the 
proper time to end general education and to begin closer specializa- 
tion in ordinary school work or in trade training, the result might 
well be a junior high school composed of grades seven and eight. 

Snedden's view seems to be somewhat of this nature, although 
he believes in optional subjects beginning with the seventh grade. 
At the Detroit meeting of the N. E. A. he advocated electives for 
children from twelve to fourteen years of age — which undoubtedly 
means he believes that a different kind of education should be 
provided for these children, and also apparently that general edu- 
cation is to stop with the eighth grade. ^ Snedden's well-known 
views upon vocational training further confirm this interpretation 
of his views. 

Small school systems with an insufficient number of pupils to 
warrant a junior, as distinct from a senior high school are fre- 
quently organized on the six-six basis, or, if they have the six-three- 
three or six-two-four organization, the difference is usually so slight 
that it amounts to the same thing. However, Grand Rapids, Mich., 
is a notable example of a large city preferring the six-six type. In 
this type some see peculiar advantages, especially the separation of 
the twelve years into six years of elementary and six years of sec- 
ondary work. Also, it probably reduces to the minimum the chance 
of a 'gap' arising between the junior and senior schools, as in the 
past between the eighth and ninth grades, since there will be a closer 
coordination of subject matter and at no time will a pupil feel 
that he has completed a definite division of the school. 

A division consisting of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades 
has perhaps more advocates than any other. These three grades, 
it is said, ''belong together" for psychological reasons, for the 
average child enters the seventh grade at the beginning of the 



^Snedden, D. The character and extent of desirable flexibility as to courses 
of instruction and training for youths of from 12 to 14 years of age. Educ. 
Ad. and Super., 2: 1916, 219-234. 



90 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

adolescent period and emerges from the ninth grade with the 
period of transition completed. Hence, such an arrangement per- 
mits the handling of a group of pupils psychologically similar, who 
form a homogeneous social group. Also, this plan should aid in 
retaining pupils in school, for it will tide them over the critical 
period when the compulsory attendance law permits them to with- 
draw. 

In a few sections of the country the conviction is growing that 
grades seven to ten should constitute the unit. Here the idea is to 
make the period of ''general education" extend through the tenth 
school year, while with the eleventh, real secondary training, more 
specialized in nature, begins. This view distinctly holds that four 
years is necessary for general education, and perhaps implies but 
little less distinctly that the eleventh and twelfth years of the 
high school and the first two years of college will be embodied with- 
in the period of "secondary education." Merrill, for example, 
argues for such a division, and points out that the place where 
stress is rightly shifted from the individual to subject matter con- 
stitutes the place to separate "intermediate" from high-school in- 
struction. Such a place, in his opinion, lies at the end of the tenth 
school year.2 Again, Miss T. M. Otto, in considering this question 
from the standpoint of girls, asks for a period of four years to 
give the girl a thorough general training. She also says : 

Many leading educators are agreed upon the need of a unified period 
of four years following the sixth grade — a period which should be organized 
solely for the best interests of the pupil. James P. Haney, Director of 
Art, High Schools, New York City, insists that this new type of education 
should consider not only the so-called ' waste years, ' between 14 and 16 
years of age, but should cover a period of four years. Arthur D. Dean, 
Chief Division of Trades Schools, New York, also advocates a four-year 
period as the length of time after the sixth grade necessary to produce the 
requisite mental and physical training for a life of efficiency, and as neces- 
sary to attract and hold the pupil from 14 to 16 years of age, when growing 
power is greatest and earning power is least. Dr. Balliet favors a type 
of 'Intermediate industrial school' covering in point of time, the first two 



^Merril, G. A. The province of the intermediate school, the province of 
the high school, and where to draw the line between them. Proc. Cal. Teach. 
Assn., Berkeley, 1914, 9-16. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 9I 

years of the elementary course and the first two years of the high-school 



course. 



A division ending with the eighth, the ninth, or the tenth 
school year presents another point for consideration. A course of 
study at the beginning of the senior high school would probably 
differ from the same course as marking the end of a more or less 
definite cycle of work, even in those schools where it is hoped the 
line of demarcation between the junior and senior schools will be 
little noticed. If it is probable that the compulsory age limit will be 
pushed upward to the age of sixteen, and if it is true that an in- 
creasingly large number of pupils will remain in school until this 
age, whatever the compulsory age limit, we have additional reasons 
for a period ending with the tenth school year. 

THE 'REGIONAL' SCHOOL 

In the recent survey of education in Vermont, the commission 
advised the smaller high schools, which maintain a four-year high 
school curriculum with great difficulty and expense, to give up the 
last two years and consolidate the seventh and eighth grades and 
the first two years of the high school "into a compact, closely 
articulated school unit, to be known possibly, as a junior or inter- 
mediate high school." A central school could then be organized 
in a sufficiently large district, open to, and designed for, the needs 
of the entire district. Its curriculum up through the junior school 
would be adapted to the needs of the immediate locality, while the 
same would be true of other schools in the district. This "course 
[in the junior high school] should represent acquirement and train- 
ing of recognized value to such pupils as may receive no further 
education. Moreover, this value must be such as can be appreci- 
ated by the average parent, and to no slight degree by the pupil 
himself. Second, the curriculum should be based predominantly 
upon the environment and find its points of departure and return 
in the community activities and needs. Third, the course must fit 

=Otto, T. M. Making over the middle years of our school system to 
meet the needs of girls. Paper read before the high school section of the Gal. 
Teach. Assn., Dee. 27, 1911. 11 pp. 



92 TBE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

in with, the central school, through which the avenue to higher edu- 
cation must be kept open."^ 

Judging from indications, it seems that a plan of this sort 
may be followed by localities in other states. 

HOUSING 

Existing building conditions are the prime determiner of tbe 
housing of the junior high school; and the same factor often de- 
termines whether or not the junior liigh school has its own princi- 
pal. Of 178 schools, 45 are housed alone, 59 with the senior high 
school, 63 with the elementary grades, 2 in annexes to the senior 
high school, and in 9 systems some of the junior high schools 
are housed alone and the remainder with other grades. Of 172 
junior high schools, 88 have their own principal, whether they are 
alone or with other grades, 81 do not have their own principal, 
and three are administered by an assistant who is under a principal 
of high schools. Nine of 11 additional schools that are to be 
reorganized will be separate and will have their own principal. 

Many of the larger cities prefer a separate building^ — a plan 
that facilitates administration and organization of junior social 
activities, and gives advantages in providing shops and laboratories. 
Smaller cities are not making the effort to provide separate quar- 
ters for this di\"ision of the system. 

Oakland, Cal., has one district junior high school, and another 
school that has grades six to ten, inclusive. Besides these, there 
are four large elementary schools in which the work of the seventh 
and eighth grades is organized on the junior plan. The latter 
schools have given such satisfaction thus far that the intention now 
is gradually to reorganize all the larger elementary schools on this 
plan. Evansville, Ind., has the last six grades in one large plant, 
and this arrangement has proved advantageous. It allows one 
teacher to work in any of the grades and it reduces the feeling on 
the part of the pupils that there is any real division between the 
junior and the senior school. Rochester, Minn., is an example of 



*Learned. "W. S. The secondary schools. In A study of Education in 
Vermont. Carnegie Foundation, 1913, 61-110; p. 100. 
"See Proc. N. E. A., 1914, 276-277. 



TRE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 93 

this same grouping, but the superintendent there is convinced that 
the plan would work out more successfully if the two schools were 
separated. 

COLLEGIATE INSTITUTIONS AND THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 

One question in our syllabus was devised to find out whether 
in the opinion of superintendents the institutions of higher learn- 
ing favored the junior-high-school organization. Only about 40 
per cent answered this question. Of a total of 60 replies, 22 give 
an affirmative, or say that as far as they have learned, these insti- 
tutions are favorable ; four say that some of the colleges are favor- 
able and some are not ; three that the professors of education favor 
it; and 22 say either that they do not know or that no opinion 
has been expressed. Thirty-five replies to letters addressed to nor- 
mal schools and to professors of education in colleges and univer- 
sities in the states where the junior high school has obtained the 
firmest foothold seem to show that the average normal school or 
college is watching the development with interest but that no close 
relation exists between the public-school men and the departments 
of education of the collegiate institutions. Several colleges antici- 
pate a demand from the secondary schools for teacher-training 
facilities and for advanced credit due to the economy-of-time fea- 
ture, and say that they stand ready to meet these demands when 
they arise. Columbia, Harvard and Pittsburg universities are of- 
fering special work on the junior high school; Chicago, Michigan, 
Illinois, and Wisconsin Universities in the Middle West, and Leland 
Stanford and the University of California in the West, are lead- 
ers in the junior-high-school movement, but outside of a relative 
few the colleges and universities are following, not leading the de- 
velopments. State departments of education show the same tenden- 
cy. New .Jersey, New Hampshire, California, Wisconsin, Tennes- 
see, and New York have given encouragement and advice from the 
beginning ; others have begun to study the junior high school since 
they have seen it taking hold in their public schools, while others 
have been ignorant of the fact that several schools in their state 
had already been reorganized. Some state departments have not 



94 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

pushed the junior high school because of some other scheme of 
organization which they thought better suited to the schools of 
their state. 

PAEENTS, TEACHEES AND PUPILS 

Superintendents are practically unanimous in declaring that 
the junior high school has increased the interest of pupils, teachers 
and patrons. To further this interest, parent-teacher associations 
are being formed in many places. Several superintendents have 
used the questionnaire method to find how the patrons and pupils 
regard the junior high school. 

THE JUNIOE C0LLEGE6 

Already the junior college seems to be in a stage of develop- 
ment parallel to that of the junior high school only a few years 
ago. The following cities have either adopted the junior college or 
have it under consideration. No attempt has been made to collect 
names of cities outside of those to v/hich the junior-high-school 
questionnaire was sent: 

TABLE 9 
Peogeess of the Junioe College Movement 
Cities having Junior Colleges: 
Anaheim, Cal., 2 yrs. Evansville, Ind., 2 yrs. 

Fresno, Cal., 2 yrs. Grand Eapids, Mich., 2 yrs. 

Los Angeles, 2 yrs. Muskogee, Okla., 1 yr. 

Aurora, 111., 1 yr. Columbia, Tenn., 1 yr. 

East Chicago, Ind., 1 yr. 

Considering the Junior College: 

Quincy, 111. Paducah, Ky. 

Crawfordsville, Ind. Dudley, Mass. 

Evansville, Ind. Austin, Minn. 

Gas City, Ind. Devil's Lake, N. D. 

Goldfield, la. Curwensville, Pa. 

Eadcliffe, la. North Troy, Vt. 

Neodesha, Kan. Kemmerer, Wyo. 
Winfield, Kan. 

Bingaman, in a recent report, gives additional information regarding the 
extent of the junior college. In operation: Auburn, Bakersfield, FuUerton, 
Long Beach, Santa Monica, Cal.; Eochester, Minn.; Hannibal, Mo.; Dans- 
ville, N. Y. ; Lake View, Ore.; Sumner, Wash. Expect to organize later: 
Dundee, 111.; Muncie, West Lafayette, Ind.; Fredonia, Kan.; BarnesviUe, 

''A number of references to the junior college will be found in the bibliog- 
raphy. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 95 

Fergus Falls, Mankato, Montevideo, Minn.; Cando, Grafton, La Mourne, Wil- 
liston, N. D.; Dayton, O. ; Medford, The Dalles, Ore.; Johnstown, New Ken- 
sington, Pa.; San Antonio, Tex.; Eawlins, Wyo. (Bingaman, C. C. A report 
on the intermediate or junior high schools of the United States. Goldfield, la., 
1916. p. 63.) 

It has been advocated at La Crosse, and will probably be put 
in operation when the colleges and universities give credit for work 
done. Detroit would have one, if it were not against the law. Bis- 
mark is arranging to offer the first year. Worcester, Chanute, 
Kan., Trenton, Faribault, Minn., and Fort Morgan, Colo., reply 
"not at present," and Concord is favorably disposed towards it. 
Sixty-two schools reply that they do not have the junior college and 
do not intend to establish it. 

Leland Stanford and the University of California favor the 
junior college, and are recognizing the work done in the junior col- 
leges in that state. Oklahoma University makes a like provision 
for the work done in the Muskogee school system. At the Univer- 
sity of Illinois, certain specifications are made with reference to 
students admitted to the junior college, qualifications of instruc- 
tors and their teaching schedule, organization of courses, and equip- 
ment. In places where these qualifications are "approximately 
met, substantially hour-for-hour credit will be given at the time of 
the student's admission to the university, provided the maximum 
credit allowed shall not exceed 18 hours per semester." Partial 
credit will be given if the requirements are partially met. In 1915, 
three high schools in Illinois — the Crane Technical High School 
of Chicago, the Lane Technical High School of Chicago, and Town- 
ship High School at Joliet — had incorporated the first two college 
years and had approved and accepted the above standards and 
regulations. 

As indicated by this investigation, the main difficulty with 
the junior college seems to be a tendency to offer only an additional 
two years of work similar to the academic course of the high 
schools. This will be of value to a certain class, but other classes 
of students need work more vocational in nature which will be 
more difficult to provide. According to indications, also, junior 
colleges will be established in places of lesser resources and school 



96 THE FIFTEENTH YEAEBOOK 

population where an inferior quality of work will be done. This 
tendency, however, the entrance requirements of the colleges and 
universities may tend to correct. 

THE SECUEING OF TEACHEES 

A problem of the greatest importance lies in securing teachers 
for the junior high school. As organization is completed and a 
demand for a definite type and preparation is made, the peculiar 
difficulty besetting the junior high school will doubtless tend to 
disappear. A type of teacher is needed that has some knowledge 
of child and of adolescent psychologj^, and that appreciates the true 
pedagogical value of subject matter — in other words, a teacher that 
has the "junior high school idea." 

H Today, superintendents are favoring teachers who have had a 
normal-school training, rounded out, if possible, by one or two 
years of collegiate work. Such a teacher seems to have a better con- 
ception of the stage of the child's life in which he enters the junior 
high school, the development these years gave him, and what it 
means to a pupil when he stops school or enters the senior high 
school.' The present body of junior-high-school teachers is made 
up of elementary teachers who have been thought qualified for this 
work, and of high-school teachers — usually those who have been 
engaged in the first two years of high-school work — ^who have had 
experience in the grades and therefore appreciate the problems of 
the junior high school. Vigorous objections are made to teachers 
whose experience has been confined to the high school alone, and 
yet more vigorous objections to inexperienced college graduates. 
These two classes seem unable to adapt themselves to the junior 
high school. Their professional training is often of an inadequate, 
non-functioning variety, and they attempt to apply the method of 
instruction used in high schools or colleges to the immature students 
of the junior division of the school, not realizing, it seems, that 
subject matter must be worked over and fitted to the capacity of 
the pupils. 

In order that unity in the school system be preserved, care is 
needed in defining the duties of the junior-high-school principal 
and his relation to other executive officers in the school system. In 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 97 

the recent Cleveland survey, Judd shows that each of the junior 
high schools in that city has 'Hwo principals, one a man and the 
other a woman. In a general way, the functions of these officers 
are described by saying that the man is to have charge of the boys 
and the woman of the girls. It appears that neither one has re- 
sponsibility over the course of study. The man makes the program 
and has supervision over certain types of work. Other subjects 
and teachers are assigned to the woman. This organization ap- 
pears to be clumsy and expensive and to fail at the point where 
greatest supervisory activity is needed, namely, in arranging the 
details of the course of study. "'^ 

Some school boards have adopted a plan of making the junior 
principals, assistants to a principal of high schools. This, it would 
seem, should aid in bringing all the parts of the school into closer 
relation. 

Superintendents who would reorganize their schools must 
first have a clear idea of what they intend to do, and then pro- 
ceed to instill this idea into the minds of their teaching force and 
school patrons.^ But this is only preliminary, for buildings must 
be provided, courses and curricula worked out, and details of ad- 
ministration completed. Often it has been necessary to postpone 
reorganization for two or three years because of one or more of 
these considerations. Finally, it cannot be concluded from the 
literature they issue that the heads of school systems themselves 
always have the "junior high school idea;" but rather that many 
of them are following the example set by other cities, and are es- 
tablishing junior high schools without giving sufficient considera- 
tion to the questions involved (see Appendix, Section 1). 

SUPEEVISED STUDY 

The length of the school day, the length of the class period, 
and the amount of supervised study, are features wherein great 



'Judd, C. H. Measuring the tvorh of the public schools. The Survey Com- 
mittee of the Cleveland Foundation, 1916; 255. 

"See Johnston, C. H. Junior-high-sehool administration. Edtic. Ad. and 
Super. 2: 1916, 71-86. 



98 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

variation is shown. Table 10 shows the duration of the class period 
and the presence or absence of supervised study in 149 schools : 

TABLE 10 

Use of Sttpbevised Study and Bitision of Class Pekiods in 149 Schools 

Period/ minutes 20 25 30 35 40 42 45 48 50 55 60 Not given Total 

Number of schools 1 1 26 4 64 2 18 1 9 1 19 3 149 

Supervised study 1 . . 8 2 23 2 10 1 9 1 19 3 81 

No supervised study 4 1 5 . . 1 . . 11 

Not answering 1 14 1 36 . . 7 . . 58 

Of 8 schools to be established later, 1 will have a 30-, 5 a 45-, 1 a 50-, and 1 a 
60-minute period. 

There is manifest a decided reaction towards a longer school 
day for both the junior and the senior school, while the practice of 
lengthening the periods to approximately one hour and devoting 
a part of the time to study under the direction of the teacher to 
whom the pupil has just recited, is growing. Practically all the 
schools of Table 10 with periods longer than 40 minutes and about 
one-fourth of those having 40-minute periods have adopted this 
practice, while the remainder depend upon supervision in the gen- 
eral study hall. It would seem that a 40-minute period presents few 
advantages; it is too long for sustained attention on the part of 
immature students of this age and too short to gain many of the 
advantages of the study-recitation plan.^ 

After reviewing the literature dealing with supervised study, 
Parker concludes that ''experimental investigations show that 
supervised study improves the work of poor students." He would 
require less home-study from high-school pupils, and would sub- 
stitute definitely supervised study for a great proportion of the 
time now devoted to the study hall.^*^ Principal H, L. Miller points 
out that the hour period results in a gain of ten minutes over the 
customary 45-minute period, or a net gain of 25 per cent. A 
school year of 180 days may thus be increased approximately 45 
days in actual teaching time in non-laboratory subjects.^i Prin- 

^See Wood, W. C. The course of study in inteiinediate schools. Proc. 
Cal. Tewh. Assn., 1914, 17-33. 

^"Parker, S. C. Methods of teaching in high schools. 1915, 522 pp. Chapt. 
16, Supervised study (with bib.). 

"Miller, H. L. Report on the sixty-minute class period in the Wisconsin 
High School. Sch. Bev., 23: 1915, 244-248. 



TBE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 99 

cipal White, of Kansas City, Kan., sums up the difficulties he has 
encountered in the study-recitation plan as follows : 

Some teachers do not like tlie plan; it interferes with, their afternoon 
social engagements. Most parents approve it, but some of the children say 
it keeps them in school too long. The feeding of twelve hundred boys and 
girls is a problem. Some teachers cannot control a room for sixty-five 
minutes, and others cannot stop talking long enough to let the pupils study. 
It overworks the principal. These may all be overcome in time.^^ 

The success of supervised study is dependent upon certain 
psychological laws, consciously or unconsciously applied. Here 
may be listed previously acquired knowledge or existing connec- 
tions, attitudes or habits, the mental 'task' or Aufgdbe, and the 
laws governing the formation of connections, or learning. In ac- 
cordance with the first of these factors, a lesson must contain suf- 
ficient familiar elements that the pupil may prepare it in the 
minimal time, while at the same time it must contain sufficient 
new elements to effect the most profitable development. Here- 
in probably lies a partial explanation as to why poor students and 
young students fail to profit through home-study, while it clearly 
shows how much help in the form of information a teacher should 
give in supervision. Attitudes and habits of study consist essen- 
tially in groups of these factors which are more permanent in 
character. Teaching habits of study becomes one of the most im- 
portant tasks of the teacher in charge of supervised study.^^ 

It is necessary that a lesson be definitely assigned in order 
that there may be as little ill-directed effort as possible. This 
principle also has a psychological foundation. Experimental stud- 
ies of Marbe, "Watt, Ach, Messer, and others, show the imposition 
of an Aufgahe has a material effect upon what is learned, that is, 
the course of thought is better determined when the instructions are 
specifically given. Still more obvious in their effects are the more 
permanent 'attitudes.' "The Herbartian 'step' of preparation, 



"White, E. A. An experiment in supervised study. Educ. Ad. and Super., 
1: 1915, 257-262. 

"Texts like G. M. Whipple's "How to Study Effectively," Public School 
Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111,, 1916, can probably be put into the hands 
of pupUs in the senior high school to advantage and many of the rules for 
study can be imparted by the teachers to pupils in the junior high school. 



100 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

McMurry's insistence on a definite aim for the pupil, Dewey's 
doctrine that pupils should feel appropriate needs and take the 
problem-solving attitude, and Bagley's demand that ideals of gen- 
eral method and procedure should be present as controlling forces 
in school drills," are notable efforts to have the child permanently 
disposed to proper response. 

More definite and productive of results are the factors in 
learning which Baird outlines.^* In the first place, the modality 
or combination of modalities to which a stimulus appeals are in- 
dividual and of great importance, although difficult if not impos- 
sible to determine by purely objective methods. It seems that the 
pupil learns more readily if appealed to through his individual 
modality, and that no particular individual gain results in appeal- 
ing to all modalities. This presents a problem of no small impor- 
tance to the teacher, for a single class would very likely contain chil- 
dren predominately visual, or predominately vocal-motor, kinaes- 
thetic, or auditory, as well as some who possess different combina- 
tions of types. 

Second, various factors must be taken into consideration in 
the presentation of the stimulus if learning is to be most efficient. 
Experimentation shows an optimal length of time — neither too 
long nor too short — for presentation, and that speed in learning 
and permanence in retention are proportional to intensity of the 
stimulation. Distributed presentations are more economical than 
accumulated presentations, for of two associations of equal strength 
the older association profits most by a single repetition. This indi- 
cates that too much time per day or per week may be spent upon 
a subject (cf. Jessup's conclusion in his study of arithmetic). 

It is profitable to make attempts at recall of partially learned 
material. Learning is more rapid and enduring, the more it con- 
nects with associations previously established ; and a lesson — as, for 
instance, a vocabulary in foreign language — is more readily 
learned when taken as a whole, with additional repetitions 
for difficult portions. Also, it has been conclusively shown that 
memory is more lasting when the learner undertakes a task with 
the expectation of retaining it permanently. 

"Baird, J. W. Unpublished Lectures, 1915-16. See also Meumann, E. 
The psychology of learning. Translated by J. W. Baird, 1913 ; 393 pp. 



TEE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 101 

Third, fatigue is a factor to be taken into account in every 
school task. Laboratory studies show that we may expect to find 
certain definite, optimal periods for work and rest. This suggests 
that experimentation should be carried on in the junior and senior 
high schools to determine the amount of rest that should be given 
at the end of an hour's work, and to determine the length of the 
school day and the most profitable division of time among the 
various school activities. 

All of these factors point clearly to the fundamental principle 
of activity on the part of the pupil himself as the means by which 
he assimilates instruction and converts it into actual working 
knowledge, and as the means by which he develops habits of health- 
ful activity and permanent interest and attitudes. Recent studies 
undertaken to ascertain the amount of activity on the part of pupils 
have given interesting results. Thus, "Wilson^^ cites the investiga- 
tion of a public school in Manhattan by the Bureau of Municipal 
Research, which found, by reporting 18 recitations stenographical- 
ly, that teachers were doing the thinking and talking rather than 
the pupils. The teachers used 18,833 words, the pupils 5,675, with 
420 one-word responses, 208 one-sentence responses, 96 phrase re- 
sponses, and only 20 extended replies. There were 622 ''what," 
"when," and ''where" and but 138 "why" or "how" questions. 
Similarly, StevenSj^*^ by stenographic reports of 20 New York 
classes, found 64 per cent of the spoken words 'teacher-activity,' 
and but 36 per cent of the words divided among 20 to 40 pupils. 
Different classes varied from 116 to 206 questions and answers 
during a 45-minute period. In 6 history lessons, the percentage of 
questions involving judgment ranged only from 5 to 27. In a 
group of 7 classes averaging fewer than 90 questions, 63 per cent 
were memory questions repeating the text-book ; in 9 other classes, 
73 per cent. 

THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL AND ELIMINATION OF PUPILS 

School men have long argued that, given a course of study 
designed to meet individual needs, given different entrance re- 

'^Cited from Dealey, W. L. Micromotion studies applied to education. 
Fed. Sem. 23: 1916, 241-261. p. 259. 
"Ibid., p. 259. 



102 



TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



quirements, and given a familiarity on the part of pupils with de- 
partmental teaching and an acquaintance with certain 'high- 
school' subjects, a greater number would be held through the ninth 
grade and possibly through the high school. An attempt has been 
made in this investigation to collect data bearing upon this ques- 
tion. A number of considerations, however, make any conclusion 
unsatisfactory. In the first place, most enrolment figures are lack- 
ing in many returns. Second, the increase in population, with 
many other factors contributing to increase enrolment, makes it 
difficult to arrive at a fair conclusion as to what extent the junior 
high school has been operative in increasing attendance. Third, 
each community doubtless presents its own peculiar problems, and 
it is manifestly unfair to group together for this comparison 
schools recently reorganized and those that have been operating a 
longer time. 

An attempt was made to secure enrolment for the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth grades, and the total enrolment of the senior 
high school under the old plan and under the new.i'^ The follow- 
ing tables show comparisons made from data received: 

Girls 



a§ 






IE 


19 







Grade 



8 9 



CHART 3 



COMPAEISON OF ENROLMENT UNDER THE OLD PLAN AND UNDER THE NeW FOE 17 

School Systems. Enrolment Under the Old Plan Is Shown by the 
Heavy Line. The Pee Cent of Gain Is Indicated Numeeically 



^'For figures see Appendix, Section 4. 



TEE JVNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 

Junior Jr. 



103 



28 


19 







Senior 



B. G. 





19 






32 





zz 






Sr. 


24 





B. G 

CHART 4 



B.& G. 



Total Gain for the Junior and Senior High Schools for the 17 Schools 

iNciitTDBD in Chart 3. Enrolment Under the Old Plan Is Shown by the 

Heavy Line. The Per Cent of Gain Is Indicated Numerically 

Under the old plan, 48 per cent of the junior enrolment werei boys. 

Under the new plan, 50 per cent of the junior enrolment are boys. 

Under the old plan, 41.5 per cent of the senior enrolment were boys. 

Under the new plan, 44.4 per cent of the senior enrolment are boys. 

Under the old plan, for every 100 students in the junior high school, 60 
were in the senior high school; under the new plan, 62. 

Five additional systems whose returnsi cannot be applied to this sum- 
mary give, as far as they go, the same general results. 



TABLE 11 
Gains, in Per Cent, in Four Systems, Organized on the Six-Two-Four Basis: 



Seventh-grade boys, 45 

Eighth-grade boys, 16 

Total junior high school boys, 30 

Total senior high school. boys, 17 



girls, 27 ; total, 35 

girls, ; total, 7 

girls, 13 ; total, 20 

girls, 13 ; total, 13 



Under the old system, for every 100 students in the seventh and eighth grades, 106 
were in the high school; under the new system, 115. 

The data shown in Chart 5 do not mean that 20 per cent of 
all the seventh-grade pupils, for instance, drop out of school be- 
fore entering the eighth. It is probable that a considerable portion 
are held in the seventh grade and repeat the work. 

Ayres shows that the usual loss between the seventh and eighth 
grades is 28.6 per cent; between the eighth and ninth, 28 per cent.^^ 



^^Ayres, L. P. Laggards in our schools. 1909, 236 pp. p. 13. 



104 



THE FIFTEENTE YEARBOOK 



£ 


sOys 
18" 




S3 1 



Girls 



10^3 & Girls 



grade 



7 



9 



CHART 5 



PSECENTAGES OF StTJDENTS LOST BeTVSBEIT THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GEADES AND 

Between the Eighth and Ninth in 34 Schools Organized upon 
THE Six-Theee-Theee oe Six-Six Plan 





SO 


1 
1 




20 






12 






17 1 









111 these 34 schools, for every 100 boys in the junior high 
school, 53 are in the senior high school ; for every 100 girls in the 
junior high school, 66 are in the senior high school. Combining, 
for every 100 students in the junior high school, 59 are in the 
senior high school. 

Twenty-tT\^o additional school systems organized upon the six- 
two-four basis show a loss between the seventh and the eighth grade 
of 15 per cent of the boys and none of the girls, as against an ex- 
pected loss, according to Ayres, of 28.6 per cent. 

For every 100 boys in the junior high school, 133 are in the 
senior high school; for every 100 girls in the junior high school, 
166 are in the senior high school. Combining, for every 100 
students in the junior high school, 147 are in the senior high school. 

Summarizing these results, and including other systems whose 
data were not furnished in such condition as to be applied to some 
of the preceding tables, we obtain the results shown in Chart 6. 



TSE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 



105 





19 


1 




80 1 





Grade 7 8 9 

CHART 6 

Sixty-Four Junior High Schools Lose 19 Pep. Cent of Their Seventh-Grade 

Pupils Between the Seventh and Eighth Grades. The Usual Loss Is 

According to Ayres, 28.6 Pee Cent; According to Thoendike", 32 5 Per ' 

Cent. Forty-Six Junior High Schools Lose 20 Per Cent of Their 

Eighth-Grade Pupils Between the Eighth and Ninth Grades 

Usual Loss, Ayres, 28 Per Cent; Thorndike, 32.5 Pee Cent 




E5 



CHART 7 

TWBNTV-SEVBN SCHOOL SYSTEMS ShOW A GaIN OF 29 PeE CbNT IN TheIE JUNIOR- 

High-School Enrolment; 26 School Systems Show a Gain of 25 
Per Cent in Theie Senior-High-School Enrolment 



""Thorndike, E. L. Elimination of pupils from school. U. S. Bur. of 
Educ. Bull No. 4, 1907, 63 pp. p. 17. 



106 TKE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

Twenty-three schools had 47.8 per cent boys in the grades that 
later formed the junior high schools; under the junior-high-school 
plan, 49.4 per cent. 

Twenty-four schools enrolled 40.6 per cent boys in their high 
schools under the old, 43.5 per cent under the new system. 

Sixty schools enroll 46 per cent boys in their senior high 
schools. Ayres gives 43 per cent as the average percentage for 
boys in high schools. 

Reports from several schools are here appended to give a 
clearer idea how the junior high school is affecting the problem of 
elimination in individual cities : 

Craivfordsville, Tnd. The per cent of pupils dropping out at the end of 
the eighth grade is no larger than the per cent dropping out at the end of 
the seventh grade, the ninth grade, or any other grade. 

Lewiston, Idaho. The junior high school has a most beneficial effect 
here in the Lewiston schools. The school enumeration has scarcely changed, 
losing a little, if anything, while the upper six grades of the school system, that 
is, the present junior and senior high schools, have increased during the past 
two years from 303 to 442. Instead of falling off from 8> to 40, which it 
previously did, the eighth grade this year has enrolled 91 and the ninth grade 
91 and last year there were only four lost between the eighth and ninth grades. 

EoanoJce, Fa. The intermediate school plan has practically done away with 
the question of elimination peculiar to the fifth and sixth grades. We lose 
no more pupils at this point now than between any other two grades or, indeed, 
within, any given grade. 

Crookston, Minn., reports that in 1914-15 11 per cent of the seventh-grade 
pupils and 15 per cent of the eighth-grade pupils did not enter the next grade, 
evenly divided as to sex, 

Berkeley, Cal., Gramd Eapids, Mich., and Evansville, Ind. Prinfeipal W. B. 
Clark, of the McKinley Intermediate School, Berkeley, furnished data showing 
that, since the establishment of the school, 94.78 per cent of the pupils complet- 
ing the eighth grade have entered the ninth, and 95.29 per cent of those com- 
pleting the ninth grade have entered the tenth. Principal Preston, of the 
Franklin Intermediate School, Berkeley, reports that of the last seven classes 
completing the eighth grade under the old organization, 40.53 per cent entered 
the high school, and that of the first six classes completing the eighth grade 
of the intermediate school, there entered the ninth of the same school 65.53 
per cent, not counting those who were transferred from other buildings. Prin- 
cipal Paul C. Stetson states that 86 per cent of the pupils in the eighth grade 
in the Grand Eapids junior high school last year entered the senior high school, 
as compared with 76 per cent of the eighth grades in the grammar schools of 
the city. In Evansville, Ind., according to Principal Ernest P. Wiles, only 56 
per cent of the pupils completing the eighth grade in 1912 entered the high 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 107 

school, as against 84 per cent last year of the pupils in the junior high school. 
(Briggs, T. H., Bept. U. S. Commissioner Educ, 1914. vol. 1, p. 143.) 

The fact that the school attendance for the state, based on total school 
enumeration and actual school enrollment and attendance, has increased 4.27 
per cent, during the two years since this pre-vocational work was revised and 
introduced into all our schools and the further fact that the average daily 
attendance on enrollment has increased 8.98 per cent indicates thel value and 
popularity of this prevocational work. I do not know any other factor which 
might account for such an increase in enrollment and average daily attend- 
ance during this period. (Book, W. F., Vocational education and the high 
school. Univ. of III. Bull. No. 15, 1915, pp. 226-237, esp. p. 233.) 

Houston, Texas. It is interesting to observe that we have had an enrol- 
ment of 1,648 white persons in the grades formerly known as high-school 
grades, as compared with 1,341 of the year preceding. This shows an increase 
of 307, ori about 23 per cent, which is slightly more than double the rate of 
increase in the schools as a whole. This, of course, does not include the seventh- 
grade pupils enrolled in the junior-high-school building. However, it is the 
next year and the years following that must tell the real story of the success 
of the junior high school as a means for holding pupils in school. (Horn, 
P. W., Elem. Sch. Jour. 26: 1916, pp. 91-95.) 

Boehester, N. Y. In conclusion, Eochester submits the following defense 
for this junior high school: 

1. It has thus far increased by 15 per cent the number of pupils who 
have remained for eight years of work. This argues well for the reduction 
of eliminations from the seventh and eighth grades. 

2. It has increased from 51 per cent to 94% per cent the number of 
pupils who have completed the eight years of work and who are stUl remain- 
ing in school. 

3. It has, thus far, produced a much saner distribution of high-school 
pupils. Whereas the distribution of all our high-school pupils is 66 per cent 
in the general or college-preparatory courses, 27 per cent in commercial courses, 
and only 7 per cent in the industrial and household-arts courses, the distribu- 
tion of ninth-year pupils in the junior high school is 33 per cent in the gen- 
eral or college preparatory courses, 33 per cent in the commercial courses, and 
34 per cent in the industrial- and house-hold arts courses. * * * * (Weet, H. S., 
N. E. A. Bull.) 4: 1916, No. 6, p. 152.) 

Dansville, N. Y. The attendance in this department has increased as is 
shown by the table. 

1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 

37 42 79 39 41 80 44 49 93 

The increased enrollment is due to two causes. There is less elimination 
of students from the seventh and eighth years, and a larger number of rural 



108 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

students are eutering to prepare for high school. (Foster, J. M. A Study of 
the Dansville High School. 1915. p. 15.) 

Neodesim, Kan. It is therefore with interest that I give the yearly enrol- 
ment in our Neodesha high school for the seventh, eighth and ninth grades for 
the past four years, going back one year before the establishment of the junior 
high school. The enrollment for 1915-16 is based on the actual enrollment in 
October, 1915, and will be larger before the end of the school year. 

Seventh Grade Eighth Grade Ninth Grade 

1912-13 70 63 61 

1913-14 78 63 64 

1914-15 92 71 71 

1915-16 98 86 76 

The figures show an increase of 40 per cent in the seventh grade, 36 
per cent in the eighth, and 24 per cent in the ninth grade, over the enroll- 
ment in those gTades in 1912-13 before the junior high school was organized. 
(Study, H. P., The Junior High School, 1915. p. 5.) 

Chanute, Kan. On roll at close of 1913-14, 1,811; at close of 1914-15, 
1.896, a gain of 85, or 4.6 per cent. 

Percentage of gain in aver, daily attendance for the system was 3.48 

Gain for the upper four grades 20. 

Gain for the junior and senior high schools 13. 

In the first six grades a loss of 3 

At the end of the third month this year (1915-16) : 

The gain of the system by aver, daily attendance is 2.5% 

The gain in the upper six grades is 15.2 

Loss in the elementary grades 2.5 

Grand Bapids, Michigan, reports that since its organization in 1911, the 
junior high school has increased in numbers from 430 to 981 and the teaching 
force from 14 to 36. The principal reports that the work of the three-year 
pupils is of a distinctly higher grade than the work of the freshmen in the 
ordinary high school. (EUiff, J. D., Missouri Sch. Jour., 32: 1915, p. 249.) 

Muskogee, OMa. The enrollment of the present senior class is, boys, 35, 
girls, 41. To these should perhaps be added 12 or 15 who are on the doubtful 
Ust, but in all probability they will make up required credits for graduation at 
the end of the year. The enrollment of the senior class has increased since 
the establishment of the junior high school, as is indicated in the following 
graduating classes: 1914, 71; 1913, 49; 1912, 49; 1911, 35. 

Ogden, Utah. Junior high school established in 1909. In 1910, there were 
43 high school graduates — 8 per cent of the total enrolment of the senior 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 109 

high school. In 1914, there were 84 gradutes — 12.2 per cent of the total enrol- 
ment of the senior high school. 

Evansville, Ind. The graduating class has increased from 90 to 135. 

Los Angeles, Cal. The distribution by grades in per cents of total enrol- 
ment is: 

Grade 7 8 9 10 11 12 7-8-9 10-11-12 

1910-11 7.8 6.2 5.9 2.7 1.6 .8 19.9 5.1 

1913-14 7.7 7.7 4.9 3.0 2.1 1.5 20.3 6.6 

The following quotation from Briggs summarizes the answers 
to the questionnaire used in his study : 

Of the number of principals of junior high schools reporting, 107 declare 
that the organization does retain pupils in school better than the older plan, 
and 2 say that it does not. To the three who say frankly that they doi not 
know what the effect is, should probably be added all those who fail to answer 
the question.™ 

In the returns received in the course of this investigation, su- 
perintendents have been reticent in saying the junior high school 
has reduced elimination. Of the less than half of them that 
answered the question, thirty-one say it has done so ; two say it has 
helped ; and the rest say either that it has been so recently organized 
they are not able to tell what the efPect will be or that they have no 
data on the question. 

From the foregoing data, the following conclusions are indi- 
cated : 

1. Increased enrolment in grades seven, eight and nine is 
due in part, at least, to the junior high school. The same is true 
of grades ten, eleven, and twelve. 

2. The percentage of students held in the junior-high-school 
grades is somewhat greater than under the old plan. This is also 
true of the senior high school. 

3. The percentage of boys held in the last six grades is greater 
under the reorganized system. 

4. Even yet the percentage of pupils eliminated at the end 
of the seventh and eighth grades is entirely too large. Here pupil 
mortality is probably greater than those interested in the junior 
high school are aware. 



"Eept. of U. S. Comm. of Educ, 1914. Vol. 1, p. 142. 



110 TSE FIFTEENTH TEABBOOK 

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND RETARDATION OF 

PUPILS 

It is more difficult to secure figures on retardation than on 
elimination, partly because of the recency of reorganization, and 
partly because, for various reasons, figures have not been compiled. 
Statistics of the most value would be those of separate schools com- 
paring retardation by grade and class over a period of years. 

Sufficient returns are not at hand to combine the returns from 
the different schools. The following paragraphs give the most im- 
portant data received: 

Decatur, III. Though we have a conviction that elimination and retarda- 
tion have both been lessened by virtue of our nevr organization, figures have not 
been kept in such a way as to give us accurate comparative data. 

Clinton, la. We have no figures bearing upon the question of elimination 
and retardation, but we have a large number of pupils who are over-age in 
these upper grades and we find that by offering a prevocational and differen- 
tiated course for this class of boys and girls, a much larger number remain to 
continue their studies through the Junior High and into the Senior. * * * * 
Because of this carefully supervised study plan, we find fewer of our pupils 
failing in first-year studies, such as algebra, Latin, and German, which are the 
new and untried fields of study, and for that reason so often cause many pupils 
to 'fall down' in the first-year high-school work. 

Aurora, III. I find last year 29 per cent of the pupils were carrying on 
work of this kind and that none gained. This impresses me as rather extreme 
and it may be that we are setting the standards too high, or it may be that 
there should have been more retardation previous to this time. There is also 
the added fact that we have a large number of pupils coming into our seventh 
grade from parochial schools, who find it hard to carry on the work with the 
other pupils and these tend to increase the number retarded. 

Santa Ana, Cal. No definite figures are available that would be of special 
value. We have a compulsory attendance law in this state and special effort 
is made to hold pupils in the school until they complete the required four- 
teenth year of age, as required by law. We have found that by having 
departmental teaching the brightest pupils are able to complete the required 
course of two years in one-and-a-half years, and that the slower pupils require 
an extra semester to complete the course. Each semester from five to ten 
pupils are permitted to skip by making up in extra credits and about half 
that number; fail of promotion. Opportunity is given those failing to make 
vip their failures the next term if they show the spirit to apply themselves. 
Most of them are able to be promoted in this way. 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 



111 



BrooUngs, S. D. Seventli Grade Eighth Grade Ninth Grade 

Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls 

Per cent repeating under old plan 25 20 30 25 30 25 

Per cent repeating under new plan 10 8 10 5 15 12 

Bichmond, Ind. Percentage of over-age pupils in Richmond city schools, 

considering srx and seven normal age for the first grade, seven and eight for 
the second, etc.: 

1913 1914 1915 

Over-age Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls 

All Schools 21.1 14.5 20. 12. 17.5 9.7 

Garfield Junior 24.2 14.5 26. 15. 21. 10. 

High School 21.1 15.4 21. 11. 14. 11. 

Hackensack, N. J. During the term ending June, 1912, just before the 
new plan of organization went into effect, the following numbers of pupils 
were repeating the grade: 7th, boys 14.5 per cent, girls 13.4 per cent; 8th, 
boys 8.2 per cent, girls 9.7 per cent. 

At a corresponding time three years later: 7th, boys and girls 9.3 per 
cent; 8th, boys and girls, 10.8 per cent. 

Faribault, Minn. Eeports 16.2 per cent failures in the ninth grade under 
the old plan; 25.2 per cent under the new. 

Curivensville, Pa. Two years ago out of an enrolment of 36 in the eighth 
grade we had 12 who were retarded. Today with an enrolment of 26 in that 
year we have 6 retarded, a decrease of about 23 per cent. 

Solvay, N. Y. To overcome a large amount of retardation in the fall of 
1912, special classes were provided, and the Binet tests and other measurements 
were utilized to determine the standing of the pupils. Account was also taken 
of physiological age. 







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112 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

The Curve of Eetardation. Upper line shows the percentage 
of retardation of over-age pupils in September, 1913; lower line 
shows percentage of over-age pupils in February, 1916. The Bach- 
man scale is used. This considers the child retarded if he is more 
than 614 when he enters the first grade, 7I/2 for the second, 141^ 
for the ninth, etc. 

The ratio of tlie pupils above the compulsory age limit to those below it, 
is a peculiarly valuable test by which to determine the success of a school 
curriculum and spirit. For pupils who remain in school after they are allowed 
by law to go to work, do so because they are finding something which appeals 
to them as thoroughly worth while. In September, 1913, this ratio of pupils 
above the compulsory age limit to those below it was 2 to 13. It is, now 2 
to 11, a gain of nearly 20 per cent. 

A high retardation percentage above the sixth grade is, therefore, an indi- 
cation that the school is successful rather than the reverse. For, if pupils 
remain in school voluntarily, it is because they and their parents believe it to 
be worth while. (Cox, P. W. L. Eeport, 1915, pp. 27-32.) 

Los Angeles, Cal. The percentage of promotions in the intermediate 
schools in all subjects is 3.4 per cent higher than in the high schools. The 
promotions in the ninth grade of the intermediate school are 6.4 per cent high- 
er than in the high school. That failure in this grade in the high schools has 
presented a most serious problem is significant. There are two principal ex- 
planations for this result. First, the ninth-year pupil in the intermediate 
school is a senior in his school, while in the high school he is adjudged a 
'scrub.' And second, the unnatural gap that exists between the eighth- 
grade elementary school and the first year of the high school has been elimi- 
nated. The loss in the ninth grade of the high schools by pupils leaving 
school has been abnormally high, reaching 54 per cent. The intermediate 
school loses but a small percentage of its pupils. 

By reference to a similar table in the elementary-school report it will be 
seen that the promotions in the seventh and eighth grades of the high schools 
listed are higher than in the regular elementary schools. 

The table shows that promotions in the smaller high schools are much 
higher than in the large high schools. 

I believe that the size of the high school is responsible, in part, at least, 
for this result. A school with an enrolment exceeding 1200 to 1500 pupils is 
dangerously liabl© to lose the personal element in teaching and substitute the 
mechanical for it. This is a poor substitute and must result in deplorable loss. 

Mathematics is the subject in which the highest rate of failures occurs. 

Manual work, physical training and music, show the lowest rate of failures. 

To one who knows these schools there seems to be a close relationship 
l.ietween failures in subjects and the educational philosophy and temperament 



TKE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 113 

of those teaching them. The dominant factor, is, however, the character of 
the subject taught. (Superintendent's report, 1914. pp 190-191.) 

At Los Angeles the scheme has been projected largely from the office of 
the Superintendent. As his interest has been chiefly in the field of vocational 
education the first plans proposed in organizing curricula for these schools 
emphasized strongly this phase of work. As a result, pupils in many cases 
advanced to the regular high schools poorly prepared for the work there, and 
frequent failures resulted. In consequence of this a more conservative plan 
has been adopted this year through the cooperation of principals of the inter- 
mediate schools and high schools. (HoUister, H. A., School and Home Educ, 
1915. vol. 34, p. 118.) 

In more than half of the replies to the questionnaire the re- 
quest for data on retardation was unanswered. Thirty-five say 
the junior high school has reduced retardation ; 4 say it has helped ; 
and a number say either that their schools have been so recently 
organized they are unable to say what the effect will be or that 
they have no data on the question. 

In the above figures and estimates, two points are noticeable. 
First, there is in several schools a gradual reduction of the per- 
centage of students retarded; and second, there is in a few other 
schools an increase in the number retarded. The chief point 
brought out is that the junior high school is not a sure cure for this 
problem; but, on the contrary, the greatest care is needed to pro- 
tect the young pupil from a departmentalized school where re- 
quirements in "high school" subjects are too high, or where sub- 
ject matter is otherwise poorly presented and where the individual 
is lost sight of. If these obstacles are overcome, we have reason to 
believe retardation will be reduced. 



APPENDIX 

SECTION 1 

JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHEES 

This section contains quotations from letters from superin- 
tendents and extracts from various other sources dealing specifical- 
ly with junior-high-sehool teachers. It also contains the require- 
ments made by the state of California for intermediate-school teach- 
ers; and an outline of special courses given at Pittsburg and Co- 
lumbia universities and at the State Normal School at Bridge- 
water, Mass. (see pages 93-96.). 

Fresno, Cal. The qualifications of teachers are the same as those for the 
other elementary schools. The teachers have been selected from the elementary 
schools on the basis of their special fitness for departmental teaching. 

OaMand, Cal. Most of our junior-high-school teachers hold regular high- 
school certificates. These, in California, are practically equivalent to a Master 
of Arts degree. 

NorwaVk, Conn. We have established no hard and fast requirements for 
teachers in our school. In general, we believe that normal-school training, 
experience in gi-ammar-school work, adaptability and professional ambition are 
more important than mere college graduation. We are now at work on a plan 
for vocational guidance. 

Decatur, III. Our junior-high-school teachers have very much the same 
qualifications that our other grade-teachers have. There are a few college 
graduates amongst them and most of them are normal-school graduates. We 
aim to employ normal-school graduates, or their equivalent in scholarship and 
professional training, for all of our grades below the high school. 

Quincy, III. The qualifications for junior-high-school teachers are the same 
as for the senior high school. 

Aurora, III. Of the regular teachers in this school, five are normal-school 
graduates and one a college graduate. 

Crawfordsville, Ind. Practically all our teachers in the ninth to twelfth 
grades are college graduates. In the seventh and eighth grades we desire 
them to be college graduates, but do not demand it. We want these teachers 
to be experienced and capable in every way. 

Richmond, Ind. No set standard has been adopted as to qualifications of 
our teachers. We are frequently obliged to choose between an inexperienced 

114 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 115 

teacher of good scholarship and one with successful experience but less schol- 
arship training. We decide each case on its merits, of course giving preference 
to the applicant with college training, if other conditions are at all equal. A 
number of our teachers are- college graduates, some have had both college and 
normal courses, and two have A. M. degrees. On the other hand, several of 
our most valuable teachers have had but little college training. 

Clinton, la. We have the same qualifications for teachers in the ninth 
grade that we have in our senior high: that is, they must be graduates of a 
standard college with some professional training. Thus far, we have made 
no standard qualifications for the eighth-grade teachers who have the common 
branches, except that they be high-school graduates, with some professional 
training in addition thereto, and successful experience through a considerable 
period of years in the grades. 

Lewiston, Idaho. The senior-high-school teachers nearly all teach one 
or more junior-high-school classes. This introduces the teachers to the pupils 
and gives the pupil the advantage of a close acquaintance with older teachers. 

Chanute, Kan. The standard qualifications of the junior-high-school teach- 
ers with us are determined by the price we can pay. At the present time we 
have four college graduates and the remainder have completed a high-school 
course with approximately two years of training in normal schools. Every 
teacher employed in the junior high school has had previous experience in 
teaching. Those taken from grade schools are the ones without a degree. The 
teachers who have degrees were taken from high schools. 

Crookston, Minn. One of the difficulties to be guarded against is the 
placing of inexperienced college people in the junior high school in the capacity 
of instructors. First of all,, they seem to be, as a rule, out of sympathy with 
this lower grade work, and do not present it effectively. * * * ^ I plan in 
the future to employ advanced normal graduates with considerable experience. 

Bochester, Minn. We have, with very few exceptions, college graduates in 
our junior and senior high school. I rather think the type of a teacher with an 
additional year at the normal school, say three years beyond the high school, 
would make better teachers for our junior and senior high school, unless the 
college preparation has been for this work. 

Trenton, N. J. For the academic subjects, we are transferring teachers — • 
college graduates with experience in teaching, now in charge of the ninth-grade 
classes in city high school — and are selecting also teachers from the elementary 
schools who have taken advanced courses of study in their respective depart- 
ments and have distinguished themselves by their success in teaching. For the 
industrial subjects, we are trying to find candidates who have had successful 
experience in the industry ; that is, who are able to earn a living in the industry 
to be taught, who are able to teach, who are of irreproachable character and 
who have had good academic training. These positions are exceptionally 
hard to fill. 



116 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Rochester, N. Y. Once it was decided to select experienced grade teach- 
ers, the problem of intelligent selection presented itself. Accordingly, one 
year before the junior high school was to open, a series of Saturday morning 
institutes was begun. Classes were organized in Latin, German, English, ele- 
mentary science, and mathematics. These were for applicants for teaching 
positions in the academic course. Specially trained teachers were available for 
the commercial and household- and industrial-arts courses, though Saturday 
morning institutes were organized and carried on through the year in these 
courses also. The major emphasis in these latter was on courses of study. 

To these courses every experienced gi'ade teacher in the system who met 
the minimal requirements and who cared to apply was admitted. Every ap- 
plicant for a position as teacher of mathematics in the junior high school was 
required to have had, for example, the full mathematics courses of the upper 
high school. To continue with this subject of mathematics as illustrative of 
the principle which prevailed in these institutes, three definite things were ac- 
complished. In the first place an opportunity was given for drawing up in 
outline a course of study in general mathematics for the eighth grade or sec- 
ond-year junior-high-school pupils of the academic course. * * * * The insti- 
tute was in charge of the head of the department of mathematics in the high 
school to which the pupils of this particular junior high school would go. * * * 
In the institute class, on the other hand, were the experienced grade teachers 
with their knowledge of the capacities and limitations of upper-grade study. 
* * * * In the second place, these institutes gave to the grade teachers an 
opportunity for subject-matter review in algebra and geometry. And, lastly, 
the work of the teachers in these institutes constituted one important factor 
in the ultimate selection of teachers. What has been said of this course in 
general mathematics was equally true in principle of each of the other courses. 
(Weet, H. S. N. E. A. Bull., 4: 1916, No. 6, p. 151.) 

Eugene, Ore. I feel that the junior high school will result in the develop- 
ment' of a very much superior t^^e of upper-grade teachers than those ordi- 
narily found in the seventh and eighth grades, for the successful junior-high- 
school teacher must have enough breadth of training or experience to be able 
to see not only her own part of the course, but also where the pupil is coming 
from and where he is going after leaving the junior high school. My own experi- 
ence has been that the teacher with the most varied experience and training 
is the one most valuable for this work. The teacher with a normal-school 
course, rounded out by later college or university work would have an ideal 
training, to my mind, for this work. 

Hoibston, Tex. The matter of the qualification of junior-high-school teach- 
ers is, indeed, a vital one. We have found by experience that those teachers 
who are university graduates, but who have for several years been teaching 
successfully in the elementary schools, are decidedly more successful as junior- 
high-school teachers than are the university graduates whose teaching experi- 
ence has been exclusively in high-school work of the older type. There may be 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 117 

several reasons for this. One of them is that the elementary-school teacher 
feels that she has somewhat of a promotion when she' comes to the junior high 
school, while the high-school teacher sometimes feels erroneously that she is 
making a step downward. The chief reason, however, seems to me to be that 
the average good teacher in the elementary school comes nearer having the 
right attitude toward her work than does the average teacher in the "high 
school as it has been." I feel, however, that this discovery as to teachers is 
at least one definite contribution which we can make to the literature on junior 
high schools. 

Furthermore, we find a number of teachers in our elementary schools who 
have not had the advantage of a university degree. These have, by our regu- 
lations, been excluded from the opportunity to teach high-school pupils. Many 
of these teachers have, however, gone ahead and taken a great deal of uni- 
versity work along some one particular line, such as English, for instance. 
Teachers of this kind are frequently among our very best teachers in the 
elementary work of our intermediate grades. Some of these are making the 
very best teachers we have for our junior high schools. 

Ogden, Utah. We require that one-third of our junior-high-school teachers 
shall be college graduates with normal training. The other two-thirds must 
have two years of normal training, or its equivalent, in some particular special 
line. 

Eoanoke, Va. In my opinion the teacher who is a graduate of a standard 
four-year high school and has two years of collegiate training in the subject 
she offers to teach, may be said to b© qualified. In the intermediate school I 
think about 40 per cent of the teachers ought to be male teachers. I have 
made some rather interesting observations on this score. While the number of 
male teachers in Eoanoke does not reach 40 per cent for the intermediate 
grades, still we have some instruction in the sixth grade, and, of course, in 
the others, from men teachers, 

Curwensville, Fa. Normal or college. Normal-school graduates must take 
professional work during summer at some univerity where courses for junior- 
high-school teachers are given. 

La Crosse, Wis. All teachers must be graduates of the advanced course 
of some approved normal school. For the higher subjects, we require college 
graduation as well as professional training. No teacher is engaged who has 
not had at least one year of successful experience. 

We need teachers in the junior-high-school grades as thoroughly trained 
and as efficient as\ those in the senior high school. Ultimately, yea, speedily, 
this means teachers with college degrees and professional training. It ought 
to mean, also, teachers of successful experience and maturity of judgment. The 
task of introducing pupils for the first time to new lines of thought and 
responses calls for the highest possible skill. The young callow girl or boy, 
perfect it may be in the knowledge of the subject to be taught, but ignorant 



118 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

of the deeper meanings of life and life's relations, will serve the cause of 
education vastly better if put in charge of advanced courses than over begin- 
ners. From the typical young, Ph. D. man in college and the typical young 
A. B. student in junior high school may the supervising authorities forever 
deliver the freshman student. (Davis, C. O., TJniv. of Mich. Bull. Vol. 22, 
No. 9, 1915.) 

The teachers of the high school are of necessity specialists ; they have come 
into the high school after having taken undergraduate and graduate courses 
and for the most part without technical training in teaching. The methods 
which they tend to pursue are the only methods with which they are familiar, 
namely, those which are prevalent among university professors, and which, 
obviously, are poorly adapted to high school instruction. The point of view 
of such teachers tends to be that wherein the subject and its content are of 
paramount importance, oftentimes in a measure overshadowing interest in the 
pupil himself. Such conditions and such teachers are bad enough for the older 
pupils, but positively harmful to those coming in from teachers of a whoEy 
different type respecting preparation, sympathy, outlook, and training. By 
selecting teachers in the lower high school who have first of all had successful 
experience in. teaching in the grades, and who in the second place have taken 
enough advanced academic work to broaden their horizon somewhat beyond 
that of the grade teacher, the ideal combination is secured. Furthermore, b;^ 
insisting that such teachers be assigned at least two different subjects rather 
than one, as often obtains in the larger high schools, the tendency toward un- 
due specialization in these early years can be checked. (Bunker, F. F. The 
better articulation of the parts of the public school system. Educ. Eev., 47: 
1914, 255-256.) 

The object lesson from this school is that teachers should be carefully 
select-ed for their adaptability to this most trjing stage of common-school 
education. In this case conditions chiefly economic compelled the use of some 
teachers not at all suited to their work. Such conditions, if continued, are well 
calculated to defeat the chief aim of such a reorganization. Not only was the 
selection of teachers bad, but the situation was still further complicated by the 
evidently inadequate supervision. (HoUister, H. A., School and Home Educa- 
tion, 34: 1915, p. 118.) 

California. Begulations governing permits to teach in intermediate 
schools. Holders of elementary-school certificates who have completed two 
years of work in a college, or one year of work in a college in addition to a 
normal-school course, may teach in the third year of any intermediate-school 
course, provided they comply with the following regulations, which are hereby 
established by the State Board of Education in accordance with subdivision 
3-b of Section 1771 of the Political Code. 

I. For Candidates Who Are Not Graduates of Normal Schools. 

* * * That the candidate has completed at least sixty semester hours in 
regular college courses in such institution, including at least ten hours of peda- 



TEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 119 

gogy, and at least thirty hours in any three of the following departments: 
English, French, German, Spanish, Latin, History, Mathematics, Physical 
Science, Biological Science. 

II. For Candidates Who Are Graduates of Normal Schools. 

* * * That the candidate has completed at least thirty semester hours of 
which twenty hours shall be in regular college courses in such institution, in 
any two of the following departments: Trench, English, German, Spanish^ 
Latin, History, Mathematics, Physical Science, Biological Science. 

ColumMa University. The following courses for junior-high-school teachers 
were announced for the summer session of 1916: Literatiire, English composi- 
tion and grammar; methods of teaching Latin; demonstration class in first- 
year Latin; materials for civics; the teaching of general science; material for 
history; regional geography; the teaching of mathematics; biology. 

There was also a course in the theory and practice of teaching; and a 
course in organization and administration. 

Pittsburgh University. A course was given during 1915-16 dealing with 
the organization, curriculum, and principles of teaching that should obtain in 
the junior high school. Additional lectures were given on the historical back- 
ground of the junior high school; school surveys and the junior high school; 
organization existing in the junior high school; characteristics of adolescents; 
features of foreign school systems pertinent in organization of junior high 
schools; qualifications of teachers for junior high schools; social activities for 
junior high schools. For the last semester the work was based upon the fol- 
lowing books: Judd, Psychology of High-School Subjects; Parker, Methods 
of Teaching High-School Subjects; Dewey, Hmv We Think. 

State Normal School, Bridgewater, Mass. 

1. Outline of course for the training of intermediate teachers. 

1. Dissatisfaction with the present -arrangement of eight years' ele- 

mentary and four years' high school. 

2. History of the progress of the intermediate school idea. 

3. The main reasons advanced in support of this reform. 

4. Objections to the plan from these points of view: 

a. Administrative. 

b. Pedagogical. 

5. Changes involved in 

a. Program of studies. 

b. Methods of teaching. 

6. The extent to which this reorganization has been efi'ected through- 

out the country in general and in Massachusetts in particular. 

7. Practical, even if temporary, standards of professional equipment 

of the intermediate-school teacher. 



120 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

II. The uew curriculum already provides: 

1. More thorough training in the subject matter of those branches to 

be taught, such as English language and literature, history and 
social science, mathematics and geography. 

2. A longer period of practice teaching in outside toT^ns and cities. 

3. Electives in practical science, or practical arts, or advanced geogra- 

phy. 

III. With this start it is proposed further to develop this ' ' intermediate ' ' 
curriculum offered the normal students as follows: 

1. A study, more thorough than could be accomplished in the two-year 

curriculum, of special groups of subjects, one group to be elected 
from among the whole number of groups. 

2. A more extended study of psychology with particular reference to 

problems of adolescence. 

3. A study, elementary as the limitations of earlier training and of 

available time compel, of economics and sociology. 

4. Ample apprentice teaching in the intermediate or junior high school. 

(Stacy, C. E. The training of teachers for intermediate schools. 
Educ. Ad. and Super.. 2: 1916, 448-455.) 



SECTION 2 

TYPICAL JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 

Th.e material in this section has been selected to give a wide 
range of illustration of junior-high-school curricula. The number 
of the types corresponds to the classification beginning at page 

Type 3 

Santa Fe, New Mex. (One curriculum.) 

Grade 7. Esquired: Eng. 5; math. 5; hist. 3; civil gov. 2; geog. 3; 
physiol. 2; fine arts 3; music 2; house, arts 2; ind. arts 2; Span. 2. 

Grade 8. Eequired : Eng. 5 ; math. 5 ; hist. 3 ; civics 2 ; gen. sci. 3 ; fine 
arts 3; music 2; house, arts 5; ind. arts 5; Span. 2. 

Grade 9. Required : Eng. 5 ; alg. 5. Elective : Latin 5 ; Span. 5 ; first year 
sci. 5; ind. art. 5; house, art 5; freehand 3; mech. draw. 3; music 2. 

The studies of the junior high school are required of all students, their 
purpose being in general to introduce pupils to a wide range of interests, and 
to prepare for the senior high school. 

Springfield, III. (One curriculum). 

Grade 7. Eequired: Eng. (read., lit., gram., spell., pen.); arith.; geog. 
(% yr.) ; U. S. Hist. (^ yr.) ; physiol. {Vo, yr.) ; music; draw.; Indus, work. 
Elective: (Choose 1) German; Indus, work. 

Grade 8. Same as grade 7. 

Grade 9. Eequired : Eng. ; alg. ; music ; draw. Elective : Latin ; Ger- 
man;) anc. hist.; gen. sci.; com. arith.; indus. work. 

Mt. Vernon, Ind. In the seventh grade, no electives are allowed excepting 
the industrial work (manual training, agriculture, sewing, cooking, music, and 
drawing). However, the pupils are told that, if they make a grade of 87 per 
cent or more on the average in the 7B and 7A, they will be allowed to elect other 
subjects. The course of study has been so organized that all of the essentials 
in these subjects are covered when the pupil has completed Grade 7 A. As soon 
as any pupil has made an average, for two succeeding semesters, of 87 per cent 
or more in either one or in all of the subjects indicated, he is allowed to elect 
Latin or German, algebra, or industrial history, in the next succeeding half- 
year, provided it is the wish of his parents that he do so. If he does not 
make a grade of 87 percent or more, he is required to continue the work in 
those subjects in which he fails to make the given per cent. The course of 

121 



122 TRE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

study is organized so that there is additional and practical work for the pupil 
in grade 8 who fails to make the minimum grade. A pupil is given full high- 
school credit for such regular high-school subjects as he is permitted to elect 
to take in the junior high school. 

In the eighth grade, all of the regular eighth-grade subjects are offered, 
both in the 8-B and 8-A grade, for such pupils as failed to make the minimum 
grade which permits them to elect the high-school subjects. Courses in Latin, 
German, algebra, and industrial history are also offered for the pupils who do 
not succeed in making the minimum grade and whose parents permit them to 
elect said subjects. 

In the 9th grade, the regular high-school subjects are offered, with the 
usual elective privileges. 

Type 3a 

Eiclimond, Ind. We offer elective one sixth of the total amount of work 
in each grade. Work in English, mathematics, history-civics, geography, physi- 
cal training, music and drawing is uniform for all and constitutes fiYe-si2:ths 
of a pupil's entire work. For the remaining one-sixth he may elect Latin, 
German, English composition, or industrial work. Only pupils whose records 
show ability above the average are pennitted to elect the Latin or German ; the 
high-school work, being a composition course, is retained to satisfy patrons who 
are not reconciled to hand work but whose children are not eligible to the lan- 
guage course. Our industrial course is very popular and, we think, very suc- 
cessful. It should be noted that the pupil electing this has all the hand work 
required of academic pupils in addition to his elective, which makes his work 
in this line almost, one-third of his total. As yet we think of the industrial 
work as prevocational only, merely trying through it to enable the pupil to 
determine whether his ability is chiefly in some line of hand work rather than 
academic lines. The scope of out industrial work is as yet rather limited, we 
offer woodwork, printing and drawing for the boys, and cooking, sewing and 
drawing for the girls. With increased facilities and teaching force we hope 
to broaden our field and thus increase the opportunity for each pupil to find 
himself. We have seriously considered introducing commercial work on an 
equal footing with our other electives but have not as yet seen our way clear 
to do so. I feel very certain that elementary shorthand, typewriting and book- 
keeping would be of practical value to any pupil of the seventh and eighth 
grades. I do not think time spent on these would be wasted if the pupil 
later decided in favor of a purely academic course in the high school and 
college. 

San Francisco (One curriculum). 

Grade 6. Eequired; Writing 50; arith. 250; lang. (conip. and gram.) 
200; spell. 75; lit. and oral expression 200; geog. and hist, (alternating) 300; 
music 60; draw. 60; man. tr. or dom. sci. 80; gen. sci. (including physiol.) 80. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 123 

Grades 7 and 8. Eequired: Aritli, 160; lang. (Comp, and gram.) 160; 
spell. 80; draw. 120; mod. lang. or typing 160; man. tr. or dom. sci. 160; gen. 
sci. 120. 

The success of the departmental schools was so greafc that it seemed wise, 
two and one-half years ago, to give three of them a modified course of study 
and designate them as ' Intermediate Schools. ' The work being so thoroughly 
systematized under the departmental system, it was found possible to add to 
thel ordinary course of study a larger amount of elementary science, manual 
training, and domestic arts, and to give the pupils a choice between typing 
and a modern language. After two years of experimenting we were able during 
the summer vacation to formulate a time-schedule for these schools. The 
schools are a marked success, and we wish to extend this new type of school, 
so that pupils in every part of the city may be within easy reach of an 
intermediate school. 

Bochester, Minn. (One curriculum.) 

Grade 7. Enquired : Eng. 5 ; arith. 5 ; Amer. hist. 5. Elective : German 
5; chorus 5; calisthenics 4; dom. art 5; shop 5; arts and crafts 5; dom. sci. 
5; military drill 3. 

Grade 8. Eequired: Eng. 5; geog. 5; pen. and spell. 5. Elective: Same 
as grade 7, with bkpg. 5 ; mechan. draw. 5 and agric. 5 in addition. 

Grade 9. Eequired: Eng. 5; community civics 5; gen. sci. 5; math. (el. 
alg.) 5. Elective: Same as grade 8, with business law 5; indus. hist. 5; Latin 
5; and poultry and gardening 5 in addition. 

Boston, Mass. At the beginning of the school year 1913, authority was 
granted by the school committee for the establishment of classes in modern 
languages in the seventh and eighth grades of four elementary-school districts. 
The following year the number of these districts was increased by six, and at 
the beginning of the present school year ten additional districts undertook the 
work. The establishment of these foreign-language classes has been voluntary 
on the part; of the principals, and the selection of a particular foreign lan- 
guage has been determined largely by the presence in the district of someone 
qualified to teach it. In all the districts the work is optional on the part of 
the pupils. 

Coincident with the introduction of this work a council of eight members 
was appointed, comprising several heads of departments of modern foreign 
languages in the high schools. * * * * This council held several meetings, and 
invited to their conferences the teachers of modern languages in the grades. 

The members of this council inspected thoroughly the modern language 
work in the grades, and in a report last June approved the quantity and quality 
of instruction given. The council thereupon recommended that pupils who had 
completed two years' work in modern languages in the elementary schools 
should receive on their entrance to any high school in the city five points ' credit 



124 TRE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

toward their high-scliool diploma. This recommendation was approved by the 
school committee. The council thns recognized the work done in the seventh 
and eighth grades as the equivalent of the first-year work done in the high 
school. 

A council on English for these intermediate grades likewise was created. 
This council was made up of high-school heads of departments. This council 
was created for the purpose of unif jdng the work in English in the seventh and 
eighth grades of the elementary schools and the first year of the high school, 
in order that the work might be made sequential, uninterrupted and free from 
repetition. * * * * 

This (mathematics) committee has made such a definition, and progress 
of work for the first-year mathematics that will include instructions in algebra 
with the equation as a core, in constructive geometry and in arithmetic. * * * 
The purpose of these conferences is to make a sequential course in mathematics 
for grades seven and eight of the elementary schools and the first year of the 
high school. 

A council likewise has been fomied comprising teachers of science in the 
seventh, eighth, and ninth (high-school) grades. This council will aim at the 
construction of a program for work in science for the seventh, eighth, and ninth 
(high-school) grades. 

From the foregoing, the goal of our work is apparent. It is to differen- 
tiate gradually at the end of the sixth grade, and to relate progressively and 
intimately the work of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. It is hoped that 
eventually these three grades will be segregated and constitute what is famil- 
iarly known as the junior high school. 

Types 3a and 5 

Grand Bapids, Mich. (One curriculum.) 

Grade 7. Required : Eng. 5 ; arith. 5 ; geog. 4 ( i/^ yr. ) ; Amer. hist. 4 
(% yr-) ; read. 1; bench work 3; dom. sei. 3; dom. art 1; printing 1; music 1; 
art. Elective: Bus. arith. 5; applied Eng. 5; Latin 5; mech. draw. 2; Ger- 
man 5; chorus or orchestra 2; printing 5 to 25 (% yr.) ; dom. art 2 to 10 

(% yr.). 

Grade 8. Required: Same as Grade 7, except shop work for bench work. 
Elective: Latin 5; German 5; mech. draw. 3; bus. arith. 5; applied Eng. 5; 
chorus or orchestra 2; printing 5 to 25; dom. art 5 to 10; art 5 to 10; metal 
working 2; el. sci. 2. 

Grade 9. Eng. 5; alg. 5; anc. hist. 5; Latin 5; German 5; pen. and spell. 
{V2 yr.) 5; phys. geog. 5; bkpg. 5; dr. and shop. 5; freehand 2% (% yr.) ; 
dom. art 5; phys. tr. 1; desigii 2^ (% yr.). 

For those pupils who do not seem to find what they need in the regular 
courses we offer special work. Our short commercial course is an. example of 
what can be done for those who need special work. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 125 

This course was first opened in September, 1913, with about 25 students 
enrolled. There are now enrolled in that department about 70 pupils. The 
work is designed, primarily, so that each one receives individual instruction as 
far as possible. The traditional method of promoting is completely ignored. 
We plan to advance the individual student as rapidly as possible. Efficiency 
in the preceding" work is the determining factor in all cases. 

An examination of the course * * * * will show there are no electives 
offered. If a student is to complete this course and at the same time receive 
thorough preparation, the work necessarily must be made very intensive. 
Students are urged to remember that this course differs from the four-year 
commercial course in one important respect. The short commercial course will 
produce bookkeepers and stenographers but the four-year commercial course is 
designed to produce business men. In other words, the latter course is broader 
in its scope than the former. 

Type 3b 

Duluth, Minn. One curriculum for Grades 7 and 8, but differentiated into 
four curricula with Grade 9, three of which prepare for the advanced high 
school. Course (d) does not prepare for the high school. 

Grade 7. Eequired: Bead, and spell.; gram, and comp. (oral and writ- 
ten); arith. (pract. and com.); man. tr. ; sewing; freehand; mech. draw.; 
music. 

Grade 8. Eequired: Same, except cooking in place of sewing, civics for 
history in last semester. Algebra is added in last semester, and German or 
Latin runs throughout the year, 3 lessons per week. 

Grade 9. Eequired: Eng. hist.; household econ. Elective: (a) Lat. or 
Ger., alg., freehand or music; (6) book., sten., com. arith., freehand or music; 
(c) alg., man. tr., mech. draw., printing; {d) Lat. or Ger., gen. sci., freehand, 
music, printing. 

Fresno, Cal. Thus far, the elective work has been offered in but the eighth 
grade; later, it probably will be extended to the seventh grade. One of the 
three intermediate schools, the Edison Industrial School, is prevocational in its 
type. The school day is six hours long; the girls in the eighth grade are given 
one hour per day in domestic science including sewing and cooking, and the 
boys are given one hour per day in exercises in building trades, home improve- 
ment, and school construction and repair work. The pupils of the seventh grade 
are also given a large amount of industrial work. Considerable prominence is 
given to agriculture in this school, as the people of the community are largely 
engaged in the fruit industry of the surrounding country. * * * * The elective 
subjects have been chosen with a view to the useful nature of the material. 
One year of elective work in the intermediate schools has been planned so as 
to count as the first half of the similar work in the high school. Instead of 
the usual plan of introducing a foreign language, we are offering a year of 
work in advanced English, which will be the equivalent of the first half-year's 
work in the high school. 



126 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

Trenton, N. J. One curriculum for Grades 7 and 8, but (a) academic, 
(6) commercial, and (c) industrial curricula beginning with Grade 9. 

Grade 7. E-equired: Eng. 4; Eng. (with typing or for. lang.) 4; geog. 
and hist. 4; sci. 4; math. 4; shop 4; draw. 3; gymnasium 2(%-hr. periods); 
music 2 (i/^-hr. periods). 

Grade 8. Eequired: Eng. 4 (with typing); or for. lang. 4; geog. and 
hist. 4; sci. 4; math, (with elem. business forms) 4; gymnasium 2; music 1. 

Grade 9. Eequired: Eng. 4; sci. 4; hist and civics 4; math. 4; draw. 2; 
gymnasium 3; music 1. (a) For. lang. 4; shop 4; (&) bkpg. 4; type. 4; (c) 
shop 6; draw. 2. 

Each day consists of six periods of sixty minutes each. Work in science 
and mathematics will demand separate classes for girls and boys. Mathematics 
wiU not necessarily be the same for all boys and girls in the same year. 

We are probably laying less stress upon the vocational and prevocational 
aspects of our curricula and our shop work than is customary in other schools 
of this type. Our aim in our industrial activities is more broadly educational 
than it is distinctively vocational or preA'ocational. We hope to use our indus- 
trial activities in such a way that they will vitalize our courses in mathematics, 
drawing, English and science and yet have considerable value as preparation 
for efficiency in the pupils' after-school careers, whether in industrial, com- 
mercial or professional pursuits. It is our aim, through our methods of teach- 
ing, selection of subject matter and personality of the teachers, to secure more 
important results in the line of self-expression, self-realization, self-reliance, 
skill, general intelligence, habit and character than in preparation for any 
specific vocation or for admission to higher educational institutions. The 
organization of the school and of its various curricula is to be regarded as 
an experiment and while every detail will have been thought out very carefully 
in advance, the organization is sufficiently plastic to permit any change that 
experience and unforeseen conditions may prove to be desirable. 

La Crosse, Wis. The curriculum is the same for the first two years. There 
is a choice when it comes to the third year, which corresponds to the ninth 
grade or first-year high school. At this time, the pupil begins bookkeeping, or 
Latin, or German, or picks his course with reference to his subsequent educa- 
tion. * * * * We give now in the junior high school, during the first year, 
half the work in the manual arts which formerly occupied one year in the 
high school. After having finished this work, the pupils may go to the regular 
high school, and there specialize in some trade, as dressmaking or millinery 
for the girls or cabinet making, wood turning, foundry, forge work, or machine- 
shop practice for the boys. 

South NorivalJc, Conn. We try to provide for all pupils who have done the 
sixth-grade work and in addition for all those who are too old for their grade 
in the fifth or sixth. This latter group will in time probably include all the 
older pupils who are behind grade, except those who are markedly defective. 



TEE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 127 

The backward groups in the junior high schools are taken care of with some- 
what different assignments than those in the regular group. It is expected 
next year that those pupils will receive a very large amount of concrete and 
prevocational work and that the amount of abstract work will for them be 
reduced to a minimum. 

Boanolce, Va. For the intermediate school I believe that, along with a 
good academic course, industrial work should be given, this to be of a strictly 
prevocational nature. I do not favor multiplication of too many branches in 
the intermediate school. Indeed, I am constrained to believe that the public 
school must learn the lesson of thoroughness and intensity rather than of 
extensive courses at the risk of very little real mental development. 

Type 3c 

CrooJcston, Minn. Academic, industrial, and commercial curricula. 

Grade 7. Eequired: Gram, and read, or bus. Eng. ; arith. ; hist.; pol., 
ind. or com. geog. ; shop or dom. sci. ; pen. and spell. 

Grade 8. Gram, and classics or bus. Eng.; arith. or com. arith.; hist.; 
shop or dom. sci.; pen.; spell. 

In the academic course two double periods per week are devoted to shop 
work and domestic science. In the other two courses, three are given to those 
subjects. 

East Chicago, Ind. Three curricula: (a) college preparatory, (b) indus- 
trial, and (c) commercial. 

Grade 7 (the same for all). Enquired: Gram. 5; U. S. hist. 5; arith. 5; 
draw. 4; spell. 3; writ. 2^^; music 2; physical train. 2%. 

Grade 8. (a) Physiol, (i/^ yr.) 5; gram. (% yr.) 5; alg. 5; Latin or 
German 5; dom. sci. or man. tr. 5; music or draw. 2; phys. tr. 2%. (&) Civics 
5; physiol. (% yr.) 5; civics (% yr.) 5; dom. sci. or man. tr. 5; indus. 
geog. 5; phys. tr, 2%. Electives selected from the other courses, (c) Bus. 
arith. 5; bkpg, 5; shorthand 5; typing 5; com. Eng. 5; pen. 2%. 

Grade 9. (a) Eng. 5 ; Latin or German 5 ; gen. sci. 5 ; geom. 5 ; music or 
draw. 2; phys. tr, 2. (6) Eng. 5; phys. tr. 2. Electives from other courses 
including shop work, dom, sci. printing, and mech. drawing, (c) Bkpg. 4; 
shorthand 5; typing 5; com. geog. (% yr.) 5; com. law (%yr.) 5; Eng. 5. 

Cincinnati. Lafayette Bloom Junior High School, (a) Industrial arts, 
(6) household arts, and (c) commercial curricula. 

Grades not given. Eequired. Phys. tr. and hygiene 5; Eng. 2; hist, and 
civics 2; music 1. Elective: (a) Choose 20 additional hours: shop work 10; 
application 1; science 3; math. 4; draw. 2; German 5. (&) Same as (a), ex- 
cept household arts for shop, and design 2 in addition, (c) Hist, of commerce 
and industry 4 required. Choose 16 additional hours: sci. 3; application 1; 
math. 5 ; printing 3 ; drawing 2 ; German 5 ; advertising and salesmanship 2. 



128 THE FIFTEEN TH YEAEBOOK 

Bichmond, Va. The general course, though making slight modifications in 
allowing more option in the choice of subjects, covers practically the work of 
the last two years of the present elementary course and that of the first year 
of the present high-school courses. The commercial course, while including 
the more important subjects offered by a general course, also offers elementary 
instruction in the usual commercial subjects. The prevocational courses, 
while likewise embracing the essentials of a general course, give instruc- 
tion in the general principles underlying various industrial and domestic arts. 
The differentiation in these courses is seen in the elective rather than in the 
required subjects. Satisfactory completion of any one of the three courses 
offered will enable the pupil to begin the second year's work of the senior 
high school. 

The choice of a course is very important, and any course selected must 
meet the approval of the principal and the advisory committee. A course 
once begun should be pursued to its completion, unless a change is permitted 
by the principal and the advisory committee. 

Norwalk, Conn. Provisional outline for junior high school, (a) Academic, 
(6) commercial, and (c) manual arts curricula for grades seven and eight. 
With the ninth year, the commercial curriculum is divided into (1) a clerical 
and (2) a commercial curriculum; and the manual arts into (1) a general and 
(2) a shorter curriculum. 

Grade 7. Eequired: Eng. 260; math. 200; geog. 160; hist, and civics 
160 ; draw, and man. tr. or dom. sci. 160 ; music 40 ; phys. exercises 50 ; open- 
ing exercises 30; assembly 40. (a) Elem. phys. and hygiene 100; pen. 60; 
study 240. (6) Elem. phys. and hygiene 80; pen. and com. forms 80; study 
240. (c) Same as (a), except that 40 minutes is taken from study and added 
to man. tr. or dom. sei. 

Grade 8. Eequired: English 260; hist, and civics 200; music 40; phys. 
exercises 50; opening exercises 30; assembly 40. (a) Math, (arith. and alg.) 
200; sci. (agric.) 120; draw, and man. tr. or dom. sei."120; pen. 60; geog. or 
Latin 160; study 220. (6) Com. arith. and bkpg. 200; sci. (agric.) 80; pen. 
and typing 140; German or com. geog. 160; study 220; (c) Com. arith. 200; 
sci. (agric.) 120; draw, and man. train, or dom. sci. 160; pen. 60; com. geog. 
or German 160; study 180. 

When pupils of the seventh year are grouped into courses, the differentia- 
tion will be largely one of selecting material for study in accordance with the 
phase of work designated by the name of the course and adjusting methods 
of procedure to meet these requirements. The subjects to be scheduled in the 
various courses are practically the same. Pupils can, therefore, bei easily re- 
classified at the close of the year. The outline for the eighth year shows a 
larger variation. * * * * At the close of this year it will be more difiicult for 
pupils to pass from one course to another. * * * * in the ninth year the work 
scheduled is more definitely grouped into courses. For pupils who will probably 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 129 

leave school at the close of this year, or possibly after one year in the Senior 
School, the clerical and shorter courses are planned. In the first year of the 
senior high, the academic courses will divide into the classical and the scientific, 
the commercial retains its two divisions and the manual arts course divides 
into two courses as now planned or into three, if facilities are available for a 
domestic science course. 

Type 3d 

University of Oregon. The main argument behind this movement, to my 
mind, is the fact that the four years does not afford sufficient time for con- 
secutive work in the main cores of instruction. As a result, the work in such 
subjects as history, civics, science and foreign languages is scattered and super- 
ficial. In our model school our main aim will be to work out coherent lines of 
consecutive instruction comparable to those in the best continental secondary 
schools. Of course, we shall not attempt to do this simply through the employ- 
ment of coercion, as in Germany, but by the applications of the psychology of 
adolescence. 

Lewistown, Idaho. Beginning with the third junior year, all the work is 
elective, except English. All work, however, must be elected by majors and 
minors. Five years' work is offered in Spanish, German, and Latin and six 
years in shop work, which includes forging and construction work. Six years' 
work is offered in home economics. The senior-high-school industrial work for 
both boys and girls is made strongly vocational. Agriculture was introduced 
this year and two years' work is offered. 

Wisconsin High School (Madison) (One curriculum). 

Sixth Class. Eequired: English 5; math. 5; geog. and gen. sci. 5; music; 
phys. ed'n. Electives: German 5; French 5; man. arts 5; dom. sci. 5; dom. 
art. 5; draw. 3. 

Fifth Class. Eequired: Eng. 5; math. 5; hist, and citizenship 5; music; 
phys. ed 'n. Elective : Gen. sci. 5 ; German 5 ; Latin 5 ; French 5 ; man. arts 
5; dom. sci. 5; dom. art. 5; draw. 5. 

Fourth Class. Eequired: Eng. 5; music; phys. ed'n. Elective: math. 5; 
gen. geog. 5 ; agriculture 5 ; anc. hist. 5 ; German 5 ; Latin 5 ; French 5 ; man. 
arts 5; dom. art 5; draw. 3. 

As a further guide in the selection of studies, it should be clear at the 
outset that each pupil, beginning with the fourth class, will be required to 
complete for graduation, in addition to the required English, at least three 
units of elective work in at least two of the remaining groups: (o.) history; 
(6.) mathematics; (c.) science; (d.) foreign language. 

In deciding upon courses of study, pupils and parents are requested to 
keep in mind the general plan of the school. The six-year organization may, 
for guidance in arranging studies, be divided roughly into three two-year 
periods. At the beginning of each two-year period each pupil is permitted to 
make a new selection of studies, in so far as changes desired are in agreement 



130 TEE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

with the general requirements stated above. The aim is to map out at oppor- 
tune times two-year courses in accordance with the best knowledge then avail- 
able as to the pupil's capability and purpose. By this method the courses 
selected are intended to provide a continued trial of a pupil 's qualities, with a 
view of finding his best. 

Type 4 

Solvay, N. Y. The work, as we give it, is divided into six separate courses. 
While often the same subjects may be required in every course, there may be 
considerable difference between the subject as given in one course and the 
same subject as given in another course. English, very similar to the elemen- 
tary syllabus requirement, except that we teach less technical grammar, is given 
in the academic course in both the seventh and eighth grades, with still less 
technical grammar. English is required in the household and practical arts 
courses, and in the two vocational courses; but we give in these courses no 
technical grammar whatever. History in the academic course and commercial 
course follows the elementary-syllabus requirements. History in the vocational 
courses, household and practical-arts courses is much less complex, and gives 
more emphasis to inventions and commercial history. A wide-range divergence 
is found in arithmetic. The academic course takes commercial applications 
of percentage, but soon gets to treating it as algebra. They treat their men- 
suration as geometry. Pupils in the commercial course spend all their time on 
commercial applications and arithmetic, in the particular insistence on a high 
standard of accuracy and rapidity in computation. Drawing, too, differs be- 
tween the courses, as does also the science work. The academic pupils all take 
German five times a week for two years. Commercial pupils take typewriting 
for two years, bookkeeping for one year. Household-arts pupils take two 
double periods of cooking and two double periods of sewing each week for 
two years. Practical-arts pupils take four double-periods a week of shop 
work and one double-period of shop drawing for two years. The vocational 
pupils spend one-half of their time in practical work. The boys of the com- 
mercial and academic courses get one double-period a week of shop work, the 
girls of these courses get one double-period of cooking and one of sewing. 

Type 5 

Clinton, la. (1) [Offers] a high-school preparatory course for those who 
expect to continue their studies in high school after completing the ninth 
grade; (2) a vocational course for pupils who do not expect to continue in 
school longer than the ninth grade. For these pupils a full course in manual 
training is offered for boys and a full course in home economics for girls, two 
years in length. In the place of algebra, they are given industrial arithmetic 
and bookkeeping. 

We have had experience of a year and a-half with segregation of classes 
with regard to sex and find many advantages with regard to the plan. In the 
first place, the boys recite better in classes by themselves, which is also true 



TRIE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 131 

of tlie girls. We are able to arrange a program of vocational classes — such 
as manual training and home economies — more conveniently where boys and 
girls are in separate assembly rooms and in separate classes in all their studies. 
We are also able to give to girls a modified course in arithmetic in the eighth 
grade, which is a very important thing, for much of the work in arithmetic is 
entirely outside of the girls ' requirements in life. We also find it desirable and 
practicable to emphasize certain topics in physiology for girls of special 
importance to them, and on the other hand, we elaborate questions for the boys 
which are of special concern to them. We are this year trying to modify and 
adapt the general-science work to the needs of the boys and girls, but we find 
this somewhat difficulti because there is no good text especially prepared for 
girls. I consider this question of the segregation of the sexes a very important 
one for the junior high school or for any intermediate school which has to deal 
with boys and girls ranging in age from eleven to sixteen. But the full value 
of this separate instruction will not be accomplished until the demand is recog- 
nized in textbooks which contain matter especially prepared for the need of 
girls. The average textbook comes nearer meeting the requirements of boys 
than of girls. 

Type 7 

New Britain, Conn. (Prevocational grammar school). 

Curricula: (a) General, designed to prepare for any course in the high 
school or the vocational school; (&) business and English, designed to prepare 
for the commercial curriculum in the vocational school and also intended for 
those pupils who go directly from grade seven and eight into positions in stores 
and offices; (c) practical arts (boys), designed primarily to help boys find 
themselves and makq an intelligent choice of trade courses in the vocational 
school, also to be of service to boys who are to leave school for industrial life 
at the end of the seventh or eighth grade; (d) practical arts (girls), designed 
to prepare for the duties of home making and house keeping, also leading to 
the home-making curricula or to trade curricula in the vocational school. 

Grade 7. Eequired: Eng. (gram., comp., spell.) 4 or 5; arith, 3 or 
4; geog. 3 or 4; hist, and civics 3 or 4; read, and lit. 3 or 4; draw, and art 
1 or 2; sci. and health 1; music 1; pen. 1; physical exercise 1; gen. ex. 1. 
(a) Man. arts 2, or dom, sci. 2; (6) correspondence 2; typewriting 2; 
(c) ind. work 9; (d) household arts 3, draw, and ind. work 3; sewing and 
dressmaking 3. 

Grade 8. Eequired: Eng. (gram. comp. spell.) 4 or 9; lit. and read. 
3, 4j or 5; hist, and civics 3 or 4; science and health 1; music 1; pen. 1; 
physical exercise 1; gen. ex. 1. (a) Arith. 5; man. arts or dom. art. 2; draw, 
and art 1 or 2; (&) com. arith. 3; com. geog. 1; book, and accounting 3; cor- 
respondence 2; typewriting 2; (c) ind. arith. 4; ind. work 4; (d) household 
arts 3; garment -making 3; draw, and ind. work 3; applied arith. 3. 

In the required subjects, the greater number of hours per week is found 
in connection with the general curriculum. 



SECTION 3 

DETAILED DATA FEOM 100 AMERICAN CITIES 

Table 12 contains the replies of 100 representative cities to 
the following questions : 

1. "When did yon pnt the junior high school in operation? 
(For summary see Table 1, page 24.) 

2. What grades are included in the junior high school ? (For 
summary see Table 8, page 88.) 

3. Upon what do you make entrance to the junior high school 
depend? (See page 48.) 

4. (Request was made for figures on enrolment and retarda- 
tion.) Do you attribute gains or losses in enrolment and retarda- 
tion to the new system? (See page 101.) 

5. Are your manual and household-arts courses planned (a) 
to help the student find his, life's work, (5) to fit for a trade, or 
(c) for general educative value? (See page 73.) 

6. Are these courses required? (See page 75.) 

7. Is the junior high school housed alone, or in tHe same 
building with the six elementary grades, or with the senior high 
school? (See page 92.) 

8. Does it have its own principal ? (See page 96.) 

9. Do you offer, or contemplate offering, two years of college 
work in addition to your high-school course ? ■( See page 94. ) 

10. Have you any segregated classes or classes grouped 
according to physiological age ? ( See page 44. ) 

11. What is the length of the recitation period in the junior 
high school? (For summary see Table 10, page 98.) 

12. Do you have supervised study? (For summary see Table 
10, page 98.) 

13. Is there added interest on the part of (a) parents, (&) 
teachers, (c) pupils (due to this organization) ? (See page 94.) 

14. In your opinion, do the colleges and universities favor the 
junior high school? (See page 93.) 

132 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 133 

Explanation of Table 12. In the column showing entrance requirements, 
the single asterisk (*) denotes that promotion depends upon the child's ability 
as judged by the teacher or principal; the double asterisk (**) that entrance 
depends more upon general ability in the rudimentary subjects, with perhaps 
some account taken of age; and the three asterisks (***) that mature pupils 
are admitted from the elementary school. (See page 134.) 

In the junior-college column, schools marked (t) are contemplating the 
establishment of a junior college. (See page 134.) 

In the last column, the interrogation point (?) signifies that the one 
replying did not know whether the collegiate institutions favored the junior 
high school or not. (See page 134.) 

These answers to questionnaire are quoted from C. C. Bingaman: A re- 
port on the intermediate or junior high schools of the United States (Gold- 
field, Iowa, 1916). 

Would you advise the junior high school plan for schools having from 
five to ten teachers? Yes, 90; no, 6; 6 gave answers to the effect that it could 
not be well worked out with less than from 7 to 15 teachers. 

Are students held in school longer because of the added advantages of 
the junior high school? Yes, 91; no, 4; too early to say, 7. 

Do you have departmental teaching? Yes, 143; no, 3. 

How many extra teachers were required when you organized this plan? 
None, 58; one, 21; five, 2; three, 3. 

Have you omitted any common branches? No, 98; yes, 8; shortened, 7; 
better taught, 2. 

Did you economize on building room in organizing? Yes, 47; no, 40. 

Is home study necessary in the junior high school, if supervised study is 
given? Yes, 66; no, 7; a little, 11. 

Do you have supervised study? Yes, 96; no, 14; in junior high school 
only, 5; some, 9; favor it, 3. 

What students are helped by supervised study? All, 34; medium and slow, 
20; weak, 13; any needing help, 1. 

Do you have arguments to offer against the junior high school? Yes, 32; 
no, 78. 



134 



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STATISTICS OF ENROLMENT IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

TABLE 13 

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137 



138 



TRE FIFTEENTH TEABBOOE 



TABLE 14 

Present Junior and Senior Enrolment, by Grade, for Schools Organized on a 
Six-Three-Threb or a Six- Six Basis 







PRESENT 


JUNIOR 






PRES] 


n3 

,!3 
















CD 


to 


m 


M 


ai 


as 






^ 




^ 


^ 


o 


!-. 




a"^ 


m 


O 


M 


o 


M 


C3 


IS 


^1? 


X 


X 


X 


JS 


X 


X 


^^ 


t- 


t- 


00 


CO 


S 


cn 


PQ 



CD 



Berkeley, Cal 

Palo, Alto, Cal 

Santa Rosa, Cal. . . 
Nez Perce, Idaho . . 

Springfield, 111 

Gas City, Ind 

Hampton, la 

Madisonville, Ky. . . . 
Morganfield, Kan. . . 
Kalamazoo, Mich... 
Deer River, Minn. . 
Faribault, Minn. . . . 
Gothenburg, Neb. . . . 

Muskogee, Ok 

Lansdowne, Pa. . . . 

Mohnton, Pa 

New Kensington, Pa 
"West DePere, Wis. . 

Wis. H. S 

Lamarie, Wyo 



10 
13 
13 
15 
14 
15 



14 
13 
14 
11 
08 



14 
14 
11 
13 



315 


355 


244 


290 


217 


40 


38 


39 


29 


28 


76 


94 


72 


58 


72 


14 


10 


10 


9 


14 


101 


101 


72 


84 


71 


14 


15 


19 


19 


8 


27 


30 


26 


20 


30 


25 


29 


19 


21 


18 


11 


27 


15 


12 


13 


218 


251 


199 


190 


81 


11 


12 


9 


11 


7 


66 


56 


55 


68 


64 


14 


12 


11 


17 


16 






122 


127 


110 


28 


35 


24 


32 


35 


16 


19 


4 


6 


4 


60 


53 


41 


45 


31 


b&g 


20 


b&g 


21 


b&g 


19 


17 " 


19 


7 


36 1 


' 9 


7 


7 


6 


12 



237 
26 
37 
15 
71 
11 
43 
20 
13 
90 
9 
85 
14 

120 
36 
5 
28 
22 
26 
8 



562 
92 

141 
31 



22 


13 


63 


40 


39 


42 


317 


306 


176* 


128 


44 


36 


18 


15 


10 


13 


49 


40 



44 
22 



509 

123 

80 

34 



63 
20 



*01d Senior enrolment, boys 45, girls, 76. 



TABLE 15 



Present Junior and Senior Enrolment, by Grade, for Schools Organized on a 

Six-Two-FouR Basis 



PRESENT JUNIOR 



PRESENT 
SENIOR 



M 



O 



Fresno, Cal 

Crawfordsville, Ind. 

Madison, Ind 

Richmond, Ind 

Seymour, Ind 

Ft. Scott, Kan 

Manhattan, Kan. . . . 

Winfield, Kan 

Paducah, Ky , 

Arlington, Mass. . . . 

Duluth, Minn 

Crookston, Minn. . . . 
Hutchinson, Minn. . 

Scotia, N. T 

Silver Creek, N. T. . 

Bismark, N. D 

Grafton, N. D 



07 
08 



13 
04 
14 
13 
15 
15 
13 
13 
13 
14 
10 
14 
13 



190 


175 


44 


72 


34 


41 


154 


133 


59 


50 


100 


65 


70 


60 


49 


74 


79 


76 


128 


115 


204 


187 


69 


59 


39 


30 


37 


27 


15 


30 


39 


43 


22 


19 



222 
49 
31 

113 
29 
40 
54 
55 
74 
87 

206 
39 
32 
19 
22 
31 
22 



239 
68 
35 

108 
35 
60 
58 
62 

104 
80 

200 
43 
28 
21 
31 
37 
25 



455 
157 
74 
325 
122 
190 
167 
250 
169 
284 



35 
67 
40 
90 
85 



205 

103 

343 

140^ 

240 

176 



907 

167 

20 

77 

65 

135 

100 



*Senior enrolment, 1912, boys 90, girls 115. 



THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 



139 



TABLE 16 

PBESENT JXTNIOE and SbNIOE EnEOLMENT, by GrEADE, FOB SCHOOLS OEQANIZED WITH 

THE Eighth and Ninth Geades Composing the Junioe High School 





PEBSENT JUNIOE 


PBESENT 
SENIOB 




o 
00 


00 


o 

m 




o 


5 


Evansville, Ind 


299 

b&g 

241 

23 


212 
311 

253 
37 


118 

b&g 

132 

29 


115 

215 

207 

41 


302 as« 


Muskegon, Mich 


b&g 


399 


San Antonio, Tex 




Manitowac, Wis 







TABLE 17 
Miscellaneous Data on Eneolmbnt 
Aurora, 111.: Eighth: boys, 91, girls, 81; total senior, 468. 
West Lafayette, Ind.: Total, junior, 170; total senior, 130. 
Dayton, O.: Ninth: boys, 462; girls, 490; senior boys, 676, girls, 763. 
Newton, Kan.: Eighth: boys, 59, girls, 63; senior boys, 142, girls, 199. 



SECTION 5 

EXTENT OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN 
THE SEVERAL STATES 

This section shows the present extent of the junior-high-school 
movement so far as revealed by this investigation. The quotations 
are from statements by the various state superintendents or their 
representatives, and were received during the year 1915-16, unless 
otherwise stated. Cities taken from lists appearing in various 
places are recorded merely as "reported" to have junior high 
schools when no direct communication was received from them. 
This has been done because cities are often erroneously credited 
■with possessing this form of school organization. 

Alabama. " Nothing of any consequence has been done in this state in 
the junior-high-sehool movement. ' ' 

Eeported : Florence. 

Arisona. The state department reports that agitation is just starting in 
favor of the junior high school. 

In operation: Globe. May adopt later: Douglas, Morenci. 

Arkansas. In operation: Hot Springs, Texarkana. Studying plan: Little 
Eock. Eeported : Conway. 

California, In operation: Alameda, Anaheim, Berkeley, Chico (discon- 
tinued for present), Fresno, Los Angeles, Oakland, Palo Alto, Santa Eosa, San 
Francisco. Eeported: Pasadena, Pomona, San Diego, Santa Monica, Tulare. 

Colorado. In operation: Fort Morgan, Silverton, Sterling. Will adopt 
later: Cripple Creek, Trinidad. Eeported: Almosa, Colorado Springs, Greeley. 

The Denver survey in a preliminary report recommended the junior high 
school. Delta will be organized in 1916-17. 

Connecticut. In operation: New Britain, Norwalk, South Norwalk (par- 
tially). 

It will be organized in a modified form in Danbury; in Stamford the 
town meeting refused to make appropriation. The Bridgeport survey (1913) 
recommended: "Eeorganize the elementary grades so that grades I- VI con- 
stitute a unit and grades VII-VIII a unit. ' ' Grades 6-8 are now under a 
process of organization. 

Delaware. ' ' We have not reached the stage in our development where 
this differentiation is necessary or even possible." 

Florida. " * * * ^ we have quite a number of junior high schools in 
Florida, but the term as used in this State does not correspond strictly with 

140 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 141 

the same term as used in other states. Our junior high school department is 
limited to the ninth and tenth grades. We have not yet adopted the "6 & 6 " 
plan, strictly. The question of a different organization or division of grades 
has been frequently discussed in this state, but our present plan seems to be 
satisfactory to most of our leading educators. ' ' 

In operation: Tampa. Eeported: Jacksonville. 

Georgia. "There are few of our school systems which have junior high 
schools. Nearly all of the public-school work in this state is based upon the 
plan of seven years of elementary work and four years of secondary training. 
A few schools, however, use the 8-3 and 8-4 plan and a few others, as stated 
before, the 6-6. ' ' 

Will adopt later: Atlanta, Savannah. Eeported: Macon. 

Idaho. In operation: Blackfoot, Coeur d'Alene, Lewiston, Nez Perce, 
Poeatello (temporarily discontinued), Wallace. Eeported: Burley. 

The junior high school was recommended by the Boise survey and is now 
partially organized in that city. The department of education at the state 
university is very favorable to the plan. 

Illinois. In operation: Aurora (East), Aurora (West), Blue Island, 
Cairo, Macomb, Springfield. Partially organized: Belvidere, Decatur, Quincy. 
Eeported : Dundee. 

Indiana. In operation: Anderson, Crawfordsville, East Chicago, Elkhart, 
Evansville, Lafayette, Madison, Mt. Vernon, Muncie, Eichmond, Seymour, West 
Lafayette. Considering plan: Goshen, Greencastle, South Bend. Eeported: 
Battleground, Buck Creek, Clark's Hill, Dayton, Gladdin, Jefferson, Monitor, 
Montemorency, Eomney, Stockwell, Union City, Washington, Wea, West Point. 

The department of education at the state university is furnishing literature 
to schools reorganizing on this plan. 

Iowa. ' ' This movement is on in Iowa but is of recent origin. This office 
is just now collecting accurate information from the entire state, and we shaU 
soon be prepared to give a complete list of schools offering some form of this 
organization. ' ' 

In operation: Cedar Eapids, Clinton, Denison, Goldfield, Hampton, 
Marion, Eadcliffe, Shenandoah, Winfield. Sioux City is planning a junior high 
school; Davenport and Des Moines may adopt it later. Eeported: Esther- 
ville, Holstein, Maquoketa, Sac City, Spirit City, West Bend. 

Kansas. In operation: Arkansas City, Chanute, Ft. Scott, Girard, Great 
Bend, Hays, Hutchinson, Kansas City, Leavenworth, Manhattan, Neodesha, 
Newton, Salina, Topeka, Wichita, Winfield. Partially organized: Garden 
City. Studying plan: Eureka, Lawrence. Eeported: Coffeyville, Emporia, 
Fredonia, Horton, Meade, Mulberry, Williamsburg. 

The subject was discussed in the 1915 state-teachers' association, and in 
the 1916 principals' and superintendents' conference. 

Kentucky. "Up to 1908, Kentucky had no high schools except in cities. 
The legislature in 1908 made it mandatory for each county in the State after 



142 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

two years, to establish one or more county high schools in which all the pupils 
of the county, who are qualified to enter, should receive free tuition. There 
have now (1915) been established more than 200 of these schools and they are 
doing- marvelous work. * * * * Some counties have as many as 5 or 6 of these 
high schools, so located as to be within easy reach of practically all the pupils 
in the county. The schools are of three grades, first class, doing 4 years ' high- 
school work, second class, doing three years ' high-school work, and third class, 
doing two years ' high-school work. ' ' 

In operation: Corydon, Covington, Madisonville, Morganfield, Paducah, 
Paris. Lexington will establish one in September, 1916. 

Louisiana. "The junior high school has been discussed in Louisiana but 
conditions are such that there does not seem to be any demand for the estab- 
lishment of such schools." 

In the superintendent's report. New Orleans, 1914-15, the advisability of 
the plan for that city was favorably discussed. 

Maine. ' ' Several communities have reorganization plans in mind and are 
likely to undertake definite work in the near future. The city of Old Town 
has established a junior high school this year. * * * * The city of Auburn 
has been preparing courses with view of establishing such a school in 
September. ' ' 

In operation: Auburn, Biddeford. 

Maryland. In operation: Cumberland, Hagerstown. In Baltimore it will 
probably be recommended to the board of school commissioners in a modified 
form. 

Massachusetts. In operation: Arlington, Boston, Bridgeport, Chelsea, 
Dudley. Partially organized: Beverly, Brockton, Clinton, Newtonville, Somer- 
ville, Springfield, Webster, West Springfield. Will adopt later: Gloucester, 
Holyoke. Studying plan: Lynn, Maiden. Reported: Franklin, North Eas- 
ton, Reading. 

The superintendent in Worcester recently recommended that the junior 
high school be extended throughout all the elementary schools. The survey 
in Boston recommended that the junior high school be more completely 
organized than at present. New Bedford and Woburn are giving some consid- 
eration to such an organization. Waltham has had centralized grammar schools 
for a number of years. 

The Massachusetts High School Masters' Club is making a study which 
will be published during the year 1916-17. 

Michigan. In operation: Adrian, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Lowell, 
Muskegon, Saginaw (East). Will reorganize soon: Bay City, Jackson, Sagi- 
naw (West). Reported: Battle Creek. 

It has been recommended by the Michigan State Teachers' Association, 
Ypsilanti Normal College will operate a junior high school soon, and will 
offer special work for junior-high-school teachers. The University of Michigan 



TBE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 143 

has offically encouraged the six-three-three plan, and allows graduates of the 
six-year high school to apply for university credit upon examination. 

Minnesota. In operation: Austin, Cokato, Crookston, Deer Eiver, Duluth, 
Faribault, Eochester. Partially organized: Ely. Eeported: Bemed, Cloquet, 
East Grand Forks, Furgus Falls, Grand Eapids, Henderson, Hibbing, Howard, 
Montivedeo, New Ulm, Eenville, Eushford, Sandstone, Villard. 

As a result of the recommendations of the survey, the superintendent's 
office in Minneapolis is carefully considering the advisability of establishing 
the six-three-three plan. The department of education at the state university 
is preparing a bulletin on the junior high school. 

Mississippi. Eeports no progress. 

Missouri. In operation: Hannibal, Springfield (Missouri State Normal). 
Eeported: Excelsior Springs, Maiden, Unionville. 

Montana. In operation: Butte. Eeported: Anaconda, Barnesville, Dillon, 
Eecommended by the Butte survey. 

Nebraska. In operation: Blair, Gothenburg, Lincoln, North Platte. Will 
adopt later: Norfolk. Eeported: Aurora, Bankroft. 

Nevada. ' ' We have no provision here for the six-six plan as yet, and so 
have no Junior High School. However, the matter of organization of some 
of our larger high schools on that plan has been discussed somewhat, and 
it may be brought about in the near future." 

New Hampshire. In operation: Berlin, Concord, Keene. 

Neiv Jersey. "The State Board of Education of New Jersey is urging 
legislation which will make possible a state-wide development of the inter- 
mediate school plan." (1914-15) 

In operation: Bloomfield, Hackensack, Long Branch, Montclair, Nutley, 
Somerville, Trenton. Studying or experimenting with plan: Atlantic City, 
Bayonne, Camden, Englewood. Eecommended by the East Orange, Mont- 
clair, and Nutley surveys. 

New Mexico. ' ' The Junior High School has not as yet made much progress 
in this state. ' ' 

In operation: Santa Fe. 

New York. "We are just collecting for the first time information from 
all our secondary schools regarding the extent to which there is variation 
from the conventional course beginning with the sixth grade. We shall 
tabulate this information a little later." 

In operation: Broekport, Dansville, Eochester, Solvay, Scotia, Silver 
Creek. Will establish soon: Poughkeepsie, Utica. Under consideration: 
Hudson Falls, Malone. Eeported: Dunkirk, Ellensville, Long Branch, 
Sommerville, Tonawanda, Troy, Wellsville. 

The High-School Teachers' Association of New York City has a com- 
mittee at work upon the junior high school. 

North Carolina. In operation : Durham, Will adopt later : Asherville. 



144 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

North Dakota. In operation: Bismark, Cando, Devil's Lake, Langdon, 
Webster. Partially organized: Grafton, Minot, Westhope. Eeported: 
Beach, Cooperstown, Hillsboro, Hunter, Kensal, Lakota, Larimore, La 
Mourne, Page, Petersburg, Williston. 

The subject was favorably considered by the fourteenth annual state high- 
school conference. 

Ohio. In operation: Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Madison- 
ville. Will adopt later: East Liverpool, Hamilton, Lima, Youngstown. 

The subject has several times been discussed in the State Teachers' 
Association meetings. It is approved by the state department. 

OTclahoma. In operation: Chicasha, Hugo, Muskogee, Oklahoma City. 
Will adopt later: Bartlesville. 

Oregon. In operation: Albany, McMinneville, Salem. Eeported: Lake 
View, Medford, Salwin, The Dalles. 

The University of Oregon will establish both a junior and a senior liigh 
school in 1916-17. Eecommended by the Portland survey. 

Pennsylvania. In operation: CurwensviUe, Ephrata, Hollidaysburg, 
Johnstown, Naticoke, New Kensington. Studying or experimenting with 
plan: Altoona, Harrisburg, Lansdowne, Philadelphia, Tyrone, Williams- 
port. Eeported: Ambridge, Ben Avon, Erie, Marburg. 

Pittsburgh University has been offering special work for junior-high- 
school teachers. 

Shade Island. "Do not know of any school in this state where the jiliiii 
has been put in operation." 

South Carolina. Little progress, if any, has been made. 

South DaJcota. "The foUovv'ing schools in this state are trying the junior 
high school in some form: Madison, Aberdeen, Sioux Falls, Yankton, 
Mitchell, Lead, and Brookings. These have- not all succeeded in organizing 
a complete junior high school but have at least extended their departmental 
work, to the seventh and eighth grades. ' ' 

Eeported: Amour. 

Tennessee. In operation: Columbia, Jackson, Union City. Will adopt 
soon: Chattanooga. Eeported: Clarksville, Gallatin. 

The state department has a study of the problem under way. 

Texas. In operation: Austin, Houston, San Antonio. 

Utah. In operation: Murray, Ogden, Payson, Price, Salt Lake City. 
Reported. Park City. 

Vermont. In operation: Bennington, Burlington, North Troy, Plainfield. 
Considering plan: Eutland. Eeported: Cambridge, Lowell. 

The Vermont survey recommended: "That six-year high schools be 
established wherever practicable, these schools to continue the work of the 
six-year elementary schools. ' ' The state department is now- working out a 
course of study. 



THE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 145 

Virginia. In operation: Bristol, Richmond, Roanoke. Will adopt later: 
Danville. 

Washington. In operation : Sumner. Partially organized : Everitt. Will 
adopt later : Bellingham, Walla Walla. 

West Virginia. ' ' A good many of our high schools in West Virginia are 
interested in the junior-high-school movement and most of our principals 
are making a study of the junior high school. Within a year or two quite 
a number of junior high schools will have been established. So far, how- 
ever, junior high schools have been established only in three or four towns. 
Charleston has a junior high school with an enrollment of about five 
hundred students. It is conducted in a building of its own. This is the 
first year of its existence, however, and the course of study has not yet 
been organized on a strictly junior-high-school plan. Clarksburg and Spencer 
are also organizing junior-high-school departments." 

Will adopt later: Bluefield, Huntington. 

Wisconsin. In operation: Edgerton, Horicon, La Crosse, Manitowac, 
Ehinelander, Eiver Falls, West DePere, Wisconsin High School (Univ. of Wis.) 

The state department in 1914 issued a bulletin recommending the adop- 
tion of the plan and giving suggestions. The circulation department of the 
University of Wisconsin has been furnishing literature to the schools of 
the state. 

Wyoming. In operation: Cheyenne, Diamondville, Kemmerer, Laramie 
(Univ. of Wyo.), Rawlins, Rock Springs. 

Since the above section was compiled, reports have been received from 
additional cities, as follows: 

In operation: Old Town, Me. (1915, grades 7-9); Battle Creek, Mich. 
(1916, gTades 7-9); Maiden, Mo. (1913, grades 7-9); Excelsior Springs, Mo. 
(1915, grades 7-9); Unionville, Mo. (1915, grades 7-8); Aurora, Neb. (1911, 
grades 6-8); Pittsburgh, Pa. (1914, grades 7-9). 

Expect to establish later: Spokane, Wash.; Shreveport, La. (grades 
7-8); Utica, N. Y.; Erie, Pa. (grades 7-9). 

' ' The annual reports of the superintendents of Minnesota high schools 
for June, 1915, show that twenty-seven schools have entered upon some form of 
organization other than the well established plan of eight elementary- and 
four high-school years. Twelve of these schools are following the six-three- 
three plan; twelve, the six-two-four plan; and three, the six-six plan. This 
year about twenty additional schools are undertaking one or another of these 
plans of reorganization." (Phillips, E. M., and Barnes, C. H. The junior 
high school problem. Bull. No. 59, 1916. Minn. Dept. of Educ, St. Paul.) 



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146 



TEE JUNIOB HIGH SCHOOL 147 

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(33) Bunker, P. F. Reorganization of the public school system. 

Bur. of Educ. Bull., No. 8, 1916. 186 pp. 

(34) Butler, N. M. Some pressing problems, Proc. N.E.A., 

1902, pp. 66-75. 

(35) Coy, E. W. A readjustment of high-school curricula. Proc. 

N. E. A., 1903, pp. 177-183. 

(36) Dewey, J. Current problems in secondary education. ScJi. 

JSev., 10:1902, pp. 13-28. 

(37) . Discussion: Shortening the years of elementary 

schooling. Sch. Rev., 11 : 1903, pp. 17-20. 

(38) Dougherty, N. C. Report of round table discussion on " pro- 

motion in city schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1892, pp. 802-803. 

(39) Eliot, C. W. (chairman). Report of the committee on 

secondary school studies. Washington: Gov't Ptg. Office, 
1893. 249 pp. 

(40) . Shortening and enriching the grammar-school course. 

Proc. N. E. A., 1903, pp. 617-625. 

(41) Greenwood, J. M. Shorter time in elementary-school work. 

Educ. Rev., 24 : 1902, pp. 375-390. 

(42) Halleck, R. p. Enlargement of the secondary field. Sell. 

Rev., 12 : 1904, pp. 162-169. 

(43) Hanus, p. H. a modern school. Macmillan, N. Y., 1904, pp. 

99-109. 

(44) Harper, W. R, (chairman). Report of the commission of 

twenty-one, at the eightenth educational conference of the 
academies and high schools in relations with the University 
of Chicago. ScJi. Rev., 13 : 1905, pp. 23-25. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL I49 

(45) Haetwell, C. S. The pre-academic high school. Rept. 

Brooklyn Teachers' Association, 1910, pp. 44-46. 

(46) . Promotion by subject and three-year courses. ScJi. 

Rev.y 15 : 1907, pp. 184-196. Liberating lov/er education, pp. 
436-458. (Bibliog.) 

(47) KiNGSLEY, C. D. Problem confronting the commission on 

the reorganization of secondary education. Proc. N. E. A., 
1914, pp. 483-488. 

(48) Lyttle, E. W. (chairman). Report of the committee on six- 

year course of study. Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 625-628. 

(49) . Should the twelve-year course of study be equally 

divided between the elementary school and the secondary 
school ? Proc. N. E. A., 1905, pp. 438 ff . 

(50) Morrison, G. B. (chairman). Third report of the committee 

on the six-year course of study. Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 
298-303. 

(51) . Eeport of the Committee on equal division of the 

twelve years in the public schools between the district and 
high schools. Proc. N. E. A., 1907, pp. 705-710. 

(52) MoTT, T. A. Correlation of high school and grammar grade 

vvTork. Proc. N. E. A., 1901, pp. 287-288. 

(53) Eeport of committee on proposed investigations on the culture 

element and the economy of time in education. Proc. N. E. 
A., 1905, p. 279. 

(54) Snedden, D. S. Difference among varying children should be 

recognized, and the period at which this recognition takes 
place may rationally constitute the beginnings of secondary 
education. Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 752-757. 

(55) . The six-year high school. Educ. Rev., 26: 1903, pp. 

525-529. 

(56) Solan, F. L. Shortening the years of elementary schooling. 

Sell. Rev., 11 : 1903, pp. 4-17. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE 

(57) Armstrong, J. E. Limited segregation. ScJi. Rev., 14: 1906, 

pp. 726-738. 



150 THE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 



Advantages of limited segregation in the high school. 



Sch. Rev., 18 : 1910, pp. 339-350. 

Baldwin, B. T. A measuring scale for physical growth and 
plwsiological age. FifteentJi Yearbook of tliis Society, Part 
1, 1916. pp. 11-22. 

. Physical growth and school progress. A study in 

experimental education. Washington: Gov't Ptg. Office, 
Bull. No. 10, 1914. 215 pp. (Bibliog.) 

BoAz, F. Growth. Monroe's Cyc. of Educ, pp. 187-190. 

BuRGERSTEiN, L. Hygiene of co-education. Monroe's Cyc. of 
Educ, pp. 46-47. 

BuRNHAM, W. H. Suggestions from the psychology of adoles- 
cence. Sell. Rev. 5 : 1897, pp. 652-665. 

Crampton, C. W. Anatomical or physiological versus chrono- 
logical age. Fed. Sem., 15 : 1908, pp. 230-237. 

. Influence of physiological age on scholarship. PsycJi. 

Clinic, 1 : 1907, pp. 115-120. 

. Physiological age — a fundamental principle. Am. 



Pliys. Educ Rev., 13 : 1908, Sec. 1, pp. 144-154 ; sec. 2, pp. 
214-227 ; sec. 3, pp. 268-283 ; sec. 4, pp. 345-358. 
. The significance of physiological age in education. 



Trans. Intern. Cong, on Hygiene and- Demog., 3: 3912, pp. 
224-236. 

CuBBERLEY, E. P. (director). Portland Survey. World 
Book Co., Yonkers, 1913. Chapt. 9, pp. 135-170. 

Foster, W. L. Physiological age as a basis for the classifica- 
tion of pupils entering high schools. Psycli. Clinic, 4 : 1910, 
pp. 83-88. 

Hall, G. S. Adolescence. 2 Vols. Appleton, N. Y., 1904. 

Hall, G. S., and Tanner, A. E. Adolescence. Monroe's Cyc. 
of Educ, pp. 39-44. 

Inglis, a. J. A fundamental problem in the reorganization 
of the high school. ScJi. Rev., 23 : 1915, pp. 307-318. 

King, I. The high-school age. Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis, 
1914. 225 pp. 

Snedden, D. S. and Henderson, E. N. Co-education. Mon- 
roe's Cyc of Educ, pp. 43-46. 



TKE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 151 

(75) Stewart, S. F. A study of physical growth and school stand- 

ing of boys. Jour, of Educ. PsycJi., 7 : 1916, pp. 414-426. 

(76) Thornmke, E. L. Educational psychology. The original 

nature of man. Teachers' Coll., N. Y., 1913. 327 pp. 

(77) Whipple, G. M, Physiology and hygiene of adolescence. In 

Principles of secondary education, edited by P. Monroe, 
MacmiUan, N. Y., 1914. Chapter 7, pp. 246-812. (Bibliog.) 

(78) . Manual of mental and physical tests. Warwick and 

York, Baltimore, 1914. pp. 61-151. (2 Parts.) 

DEALING PAETICULAELY WITH THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL.* 

(79) Abelson, J. A bibliography of the junior high school. Edu- 

cation. 37 : 1916, pp. 122-129. 

(80) . A study of the junior-high-school project. Educa- 
tion, 37 : 1916, pp. 1-19. 

(81) Angell, J. R. The junior-college movement in high schools. 

Sell. Rev., 23 : 1915, pp. 289-302. 

(82) Bachman, F. p. Problems in elementary education. World 

Book Co., Yonkers, N. Y. 1915. Part 1. 

(83) Bagley, W. C. The justification of a certain measure of 

uniformity. Univ. of III. ScJi. of Educ, Bull. No. 13, Proc. 
of H. S. Conference, 1914, pp. 12-21. 

(84) . The six-six plan. Sell, and Home Educ, 34: 1915, 

pp. 3-5. 

(85) . Some handicaps to education in a democracy. ScJi. 

and Soc, 3 : 1916', pp. 807-816. 

(86) Baker, G. M. A collection of material for those organizing 

under the six-six plan. Ken. H. S. Quarterly, 1 : 1915, pp. 
5-32. 

(87) Baker, J. H. (chairman). Eeport of the committee of the 

National Council of Education on Economy of Time in Edu- 
cation. Bureau of Educ, Bull. No. 38, 1913. 106 pp. 
(Bibliog.) 



^The follovping periodicals contain many news notes, editorials, etc., not 
listed in this bibliography: Educational Administration and Supervision; 
The Elementary School Journal; The School Eeviexv ; School and Home Educa- 
tion; The American School Board Journal. 



152 TEE FIFTEENTH YEARBOOK 

(88) Barber, F. D. The present meaning of general science. Sch. 

Rev., 23 : 1915, pp. 9-24. Vniv. of III. Sell, of Ed. Bull. No. 
13, pp. 48-58. 

(89) BiNGAMAN, C. C. A report on the intermediate or junior high >-^ 

schools of the United States. Goldfield, Iowa, 1916. 67 pp. 

(90) BoNSER, F. G. Democratizing secondary education by the 

six-three-three plan. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 
567-576. 

(91) Briggs, T. H. General science in secondary schools. Teach. 

Coll. Record, 17 : 1916, pp. 19-30. 

(92) . Secondary education. Rept. U. S. Commsnr. Educ, 

1914. Vol. 1, 127-157. 

(93) Brown, J. S. The jimior high school, the senior high school 

and the senior college. Proc. NortJi Cen. Assn., 1916, pp. 
140-151. 

(94) . Possibilities in secondary education. Proc. N. E. A., 

1915, pp. 616-621. 

(95) Bulletin of the High-School Teachers' Association of New- 

York City. The junior high school. January, 1916. 
(Bibliog.) 

(96) Bunker, F. F. The better articulation of the parts of the 

school system. Educ. Rev., 47 : 1914, pp. 249-268. 

(97) Gary, E. P. (state superintendent). Eeport of the committee 

of the public school system on a six-six plan. Madison. Wis., 

1914. 11pp. (Bibliog.) 

(98) Cirpriani, C. J. Elimination of waste in elementary educa- 
tion. Education, 36 : 1915, pp. 203-214. 

(99) CoFFMAN, L. D., Bagley, W. C., and Snedden, D. S. Joint 

discussion : The minimum essentials versus the differentiated 
course of study in the seventh and eighth grades. N. E. A. 
Bulletin, 1916, No. 6, pp. 63-86. 

(100) Coulter, J. M. The mission of general science in education. 
Sell. Rev., 23 : 1915, pp. 1-8. Also in Vniv. of III. Sell, of Ed. 
Bull., No. 13, pp. 48-58. 

(101) . Proposed status of science instruction in the junior- 
senior high-school organization. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1 : 

1915, pp. 639-645. 



THE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 153 

(102) Cox, P. W. L. The Solvay high school. Educ. Ad. and 
Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 619-622. 

(103) . School report, Solvay, New York, 1914-15. 112 pp. 

(104) Craig, C. C, Woodwork for the junior high school. Man. 
Tr. and Voc. Educ, 16 : 1915, pp. 632-635. 

(105) Davis, C. 0. The subject matter and administration of the 
six-three-three plan of secondary schools. Univ. of Mich. 
Bull., No. 9, 1915. 35 pp. 

(106) Deutsch, M. E. Latin instruction in California intermediate 
schools. Classical Weekly, 8 : 1915, pp. 122-125. 

(107) Douglass, A. A. The present status of the junior high 
school. Fed. Sent., 22 : 1915, pp. 252-274. 

(108) DuMWAY, C. A. The separation and development of the 
junior college as distinct from the university. Proc. N. E. A., 
1911, pp. 660-664. 

(108a) Dunn, W. A.. The social studies in secondary education. 
Bur. of Educ, Bull. No. 28, 1916. 63 pp. 

(109) Francis, J. H. A reorganization of our school system. Proc. 
N. E. A., 1912, pp. 368-376. 

(110) FuLLERTON, C. H. Columbus junior high schools. Colum- 
bus, 0., 1912. 24 pp. 

(111) GuGLE, M. Prospectus concerning the organization of junior 
and senior high schools. Columbus, 0., 1915. 15 pp. 

(112) Hartwell, C. S. The junior high school for increased econ- 
omy and efficiency. Reprint, TJie Amer. TeacJier, March, 
1915. 4 pp. 

(113) Hill, CM. The junior high school. Bull, of Mo. State 
Normal Scliool, Springfield, 10 : 1915, No. 3. 48 pp. 

(114) HoLLiSTER, H. A. The junior high school. Sell, and Home 
Educ, 35 : 1915, pp. 117-120. 

(115) HooDj W. R. Junior and senior high schools. Rept. TJ. S. 
Commissioner Educ, 1913, Vol. 1, pp. 153-156. 

(116) . City school systems, 1911-12. Rept. JJ. S. Commis- 
sioner Educ, 1912. Vol. 1, pp. 125-175. 

(117) Horn, P. W. The junior high school in Houston, Texas. 
El. Sell. Jour., 26 : 1916, pp. 91-95. 



154 THE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

Hughes, J. F. The essential features of the Chanute junior- 
senior high-school plan and its tangible results. Educ. Ad. 
Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 617-619. 

Johnston, C. H. Curriculum adjustments in high school. 
;S^c7i. Rev., 22 : 1914, pp. 577-590. 

. High school administration. Educ. Ad. and Super., 

: 1916, pp. 71-86. (Bibliog.) 

. High-school terminologj\ Educ. Rev., 49 : 1915, pp. 

228-246. 

. The high-school issue (symposium). Educ. Ad. 

and Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 29-49. 

. The junior high school. Educ. Ad. and Super., 2 : 

1916, pp. 413-424. 

. Movement toward the reorganization of secondary 

education. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 165-172. 

. Reorganization of secondary education and the 

North Central Association. Educ. Ad. and Super., 1 : 1915, 
pp. 327-330. 

. What is curriculum differentiation? (Editorial) 

Educ. Ad and Super., 2 : 1916, pp. 49-57 

JuDD, C. H. The jimior high school. Sell. Rev., 23 :1915, 

pp. 25-33. 

. The junior high school. Sell. Rev., 24 : 1916, pp. 

249-260. Also in N. E. A. Bull., 4 : 1916, No. 6, pp. 27-35. 
Lange, a. F. (chairman). Report of the committee on read- 
justment of the course of study and the certification of 
teachers. Reprint, Sierra Educ. News, Sept., 1912. 8 pp. 
Lawson, M. F. The socialization of language study in the 
junior high school. Fed. Sem., 23 : 1916, pp. 76-85. 
Learned, W. S. The secondary schools. In A study of edu- 
cation in Yerw^oni. Carnegie Foundation, 1913, pp. 61-110. 
Lea^tltt, F. M. The reorganization of school systems. Elem, 
Sell. Teach., 12 : 1912, pp. 225-236. 

. The six -three-three plan (editorial). Ilan. Tr. and 

Voc. Educ, 16 : 1915, pp. 240-242. 

Lewis, E. E. Iowa experiment in general science. ScJi. 

Rev., 24:: 1916, pp. 426-435. 



TEE JUNIOE HIGH SCHOOL 155 

Lodge, G. Latin in the junior high school. ScJi. and Soc, 
1 : 1915, pp. 300-304. 

Lull, H. G. The six years ' high school. Education, 30 : 
1909, pp. 15-24. 

Mackie, R. a. Progressive high-school reorganization. Edu- 
cation, 33 : 1913, pp. 420-427. 

Meyers, G. W. Educational movements and general mathe- 
matics. Sell. Sci. and Math., 16 : 1916, pp. 97-105. 
Merrill, G. A. The province of the intermediate school, the 
province of the high school, and where to draw the line 
between them. Proc. of annual meeting, Cal TeacJi Assn., 
Berkeley, 1914, pp. 9-16. 

Miller, H. L. Report on the sixty-minute class period in 
Wisconsin High School. ScJi. Rev., 23 : 1915, pp. 244-248. 

. (principal). Bulletin, Univ. of Wis., No. 749. 

Wisconsin High School announcement, 1915-16. 85 pp. 
Nutting, H. C. Latin in the seventh and eighth grades in 
California. Classical Weekly, 7 : 1914, pp. 154-157. 
Otto, T. M. Making over the middle years of our school 
system to meet the needs of girls. Paper read before high- 
school section of Cal. Teach. Assn., Dec. 27, 1911. 
Outline of work in French and German for intermediate 
classes in the elementary grades. School Document, No. 13, 
1915. Boston public schools. 23 pp. 

Park, J. C, and Harlan, C. L. Teaching of manual arts 
and home-making in 156 cities in the United States. Educ. 
Ad. and Super., 1 : 1915, pp. 677-678. 

Pearse, C. G. Debate : The best organization for American 
schools is a plan which shall divide these schools into six 
years of elementary training and six years of secondary 
training (negative). N.E.A. Bulletin, 4: 1916, No. 6, pp. 
35-44. 

Phillips, E. M., and Barnes, C. H. The junior-high-school 
problem. Minn. Dept. of Educ. St. Paul. Bull. No. 59, 1916. 
25 pp. 

Preliminary statements of committees of the commission of 
the national education association on the reorganization of 



156 TSE FIFTEENTH YEABBOOK 

secondary education. AVashington, Govt. Ptg. Office, Bull. 
No. 41, 1913. 80 pp. 

(149) Report of committee on elementary course of study of Min- 
nesota educational association on elimination of subject mat- 
ter in arithmetic, American history, composition, English 
grammar, geography, and reading. Published by state 
department of education, St. Paul. Bulletin No. 51, 1914. 
15 pp. 

(150) Robinson, E. V. D. The reorganization of the grades and 
the high school. Sell. Rev., 20 : 1912, pp. 665-688. 

(151) RuGG, H. 0. The experimental determination of standards 
in first-year algebra. Sell. Rev., 24 : 1916, pp. 37-66. 

(152) Russell, W. F. Economy of time in secondary education. 
Educ. Rev., 49 : 1915, pp. 20-36. 

(153) Rutherford, W. R. Feasibility of the junior high school in 
the small city. McMinneville, Ore. 8 pp. 

(154) Stuart, F. L. The demand for Spanish. Univ. of III. Sch. 
of Educ, Bull. No. 13, pp. 264-268. 

(155) Study, H. P. The junior high school. Neodesha, Kan., 
1915. 70 pp. 

(156) Snayely, G. E. The junior high school and the college. 
Educ. Rev., 51 : 1916, pp. 40-49. 

(157) Snedden, D. S. Thcf character and extent of desirable flexi- 
bility as to courses of instruction and training for youths of 
12 to 14 years of age. Educ. Ad. and Super., 2 : 1916, pp. 
219-234. Also in N.E.A. Bulletin, 1916, Vol. 4, No. 6, 
pp. 75-86. 

(158) . Differentiated programs of study for older children 

in elementary schools. Educ. Rev., 44 : 1912, pp. 128-139. 

(159) . Reorganization of education for children from 12 

to 14 years of age. Educ. Ad. and Super., 2: 1916, pp. 
425-432. 

(160) Taylor, A. M. General science situation in Iowa and Cali- 
fornia. Sell. Rev., 24 : 1916, pp. 20-25. 

(161) Stagey, C. R. The training of teachers for intermediate 
schools. Educ. Ad. and Super., 2 : 1916, pp. 448-455. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 157 

(162) The teaching of community civics. Prepared by a special 
committee of the commission on the reorganization of 
secondary education, N. E. A. Bureau of Educ, Bull. No. 
23,1915. 55 pp. (Bibliog.) 

(163) Templeton, J, C. Present outlook of the intermediate school 
Paper read before the high-school section of the California 
Teachers' Association, Oakland, Dec. 30, 1913. 

(164) Tyron, R. M. History in the junior high school. Elem. 
Sch. Jour., 16 : 1916, pp. 491-507. 

(165) Van Sickle, J. H. Progress in city school systems of more 
than 25,000 population. Rept. JJ. S. Commissioner Educ, 

1914, Vol. 1, pp. 37-60. 

(166) Weet, H. S. a junior high school. Proc. of tJie 51st Con- 
vocation of the Univ. of the State of N. Y., Albany, 1915, pp. 
105-115. Also in ScJi. Bev., 24 : 1916, pp. 142-151. 

(167) . A first step in establishing the six-three-three organ- 
ization. N. E. A. Bulletin, 4 : 1916, No. 6, pp. 146-152. Also 
in Educ. Ad. and Super., 1916, pp. 433-447. 

(168) Wetzel, W. A. Document No. 39, Council of Education of 
the State of New Jersey. The junior high school. 1914. 30 
pp. (Bibliog.) 

(169) Wheeler, G. The six-year high school. Sell. Rev., 21 : 1913, 
pp. 239-245. 

(170) Whitney, P.P. Differentiation of courses in the seventh 
and eighth grades, ^duc. Rev., 41 : 1911, pp. 127-134. 

,C1I1) Wilson, G. M. (chairman). Elimination of obselete topics 
and material from the common branches. Report of a com- 
mittee of the Iowa State Teachers' Association. Dept. of 
Pub. Instruction, Des Moines, 1915. 54 pp. (Bibliog.) 

(172) Wood, W. C. The course of study in intermediate schools. 
Proc. Cal. Teach. Assn., 1914, pp. 17-33. 

(173) Work of the intermediate schools of Los Angeles. Sup't's 
report, 1914. pp. 167-191. Also in Elem. Sch. Jour., 15: 

1915, pp. 361-377. 



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Tenth Yearbook, 1911, Part I. — The City School as a Community Center, By H. C. 

Leipziger, Sarah E. Hyre, R. D. Warden, C. Ward Crampton, E. W. Stitt, E. J, 

Ward, Mrs. E. C. Grice, C. A, Perry, 75 cents; postpaid 78 

Tenth Yearbook, 1911, Part II. — The Rural School as a Community Center. By 

B. H. Crocheron, Jessie Field, F. W. Howe, E. C. Bishop, A. B. Graham, O, J. 

Kern, M, T, Scudder, B. M, Davis, 75 cents; postpaid _ ,78 

Price for Yearbooks VI to X inclusive, 8vo, cloth, $5,00; postage extra (weight 4 lbs,) 
Eleventh Yearbook, 1912, Part I, — Industrial Education, By P, M, Leavitt, G, A. 

Mirick, M. W, Murray, J, F, Barker, H. B, Wilson, C. F, Perry, A. L. Safford, 

P. Johnston, M. Bloomfield, B. W, Johnson. 75 cents; postage extra (weight 

10 oz.) 
Eleventh Yearbook, 1912, Part II. — Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools. 

By A. C. Monahan, R. W. Stimson, D, J. Crosby, W, H, French, H, F, Button, 

F. E. Crane, W, R. Hart, G, F. Warren. 75 cents; postage extra (weight 10 oz.) 
Twelfth Yearbook, 1913, Part I.— The Supervision of City Schools, By J. F, Bobbitt, 

J. W. Hall, J, D, Wolcott. 75 cents; postage extra (weight 10 oz.) 
Twelfth Yearbook, 1913, Part U.— The Supervision of Rural Schools. By A. C. 

Monahan, L. J, Hanifan, J, E, Warren, Wallace Lund, U. J. Hoffman, A, S. 

Cook, E. M, Rapp, Jackson Davis, J. D. Wolcott, 75 cents; postage extra 

(weight 10 oz,) 
Thirteenth Yearbook, 1914, Part I, — Some Aspects of High-School Instruction and 

Administration. By H. C. Morrison, E, R, Breslich, W, A, Jessup, and L, D, 

Coffman, 75 cents postage extra (weight 10 oz,) 
Thirteenth Yearbook, 1914, Part II, — Plans for Organizing School Surveys, by H. L. 

Smith; with a Summary of Typical School Surveys, by Charles H. Judd. 75 

cents; postpaid .79 

Pourteenth Yearbook, 1915, Part I. — Minimum Essentials in Elementary-School 

Subjects. By H. B. Wilson, H. W. Holmes, F. E. Thompson, R. G. Jones, S. H. 

Courtis, W. S. Gray, F, N. Freeman, A, C, Pryor, J. F. Hosic, W, A, Jessup, 

W. C. Bagley, 75 cents; postage extra (weight 12 oz,) 
Pourteenth Yearbook, 1915, Part II.— Methods for Measuring Teachers' Efficiency. 

By Arthur Clifton Boyce. 75 ^cents; postpaid 79 

Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part I. — Standards and Tests for the Measurement of the 

Efficiency of Schools and School Systems, By G. D. Strayer, Bird T, Baldwin, 

B. R. Buckingham, M, R. Trabue, F, W. Ballou, D. C, Bliss, H. G, Childs, S, A. 

Courtis, E, P. Cubberley, Charles H, Judd, George Melcher, E, E. Oberholtzer, 

J. B. Sears, Daniel Starch, and G. M. Whipple. 75 cents; postage extra (weight 

12 oz.) 
Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part II. — The Relationship between Persistence in School 

and Home Conditions, By Charles Elmer HoUey. 75 cents; postage extra 

(weight 10 oz,) 
Fifteenth Yearbook, 1916, Part III. — The Junior High School. By Aubrey Augustus 

Douglass. 75 cents; postage extra (weight 12 oz.) 

PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS 

AGENTS 

The Baker & Taylor Company New York 

The Cunningham, Curtiss & Welch Co. ----- - Los Angeles 

The Cambridge University Press London and Edinburgh 

Karl W, Hiersemann - Leipsia 

The Maruzen-Kabushiki-Kaisha . . . - . Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto 
The Mission Book Company Shanghai 



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